An excerpt characterizing the Kypchak languages

I. Introduction

From the time of the appearance of the "European" Huns and until the fall of the Chingizid khanates, the Black Sea-Caspian steppes, and, accordingly, the neighboring settled communities, of course, to varying degrees, were under the rule of a number of nomadic peoples, or were doomed to close interaction with them . Although the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes, representing the Iranian family, ruled here for a whole millennium that preceded the Huns, and even later Iranian elements, both retaining their independence and being part of other formations as substrates, continued to play an important role in the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the region, nevertheless most of the nomads who became the masters of these beautiful steppes, or at least that part of them that exercised political leadership, were of Turkic origin. In the period from the Turkic conquest of Eastern Europe in the late 60s of the 6th century to the campaigns of the Genghisides, all Turkic communities in this region were somehow generated by the Turkic Khaganate.

But of all these peoples, only the Khazars, the direct political heirs of the Turks, created a Khaganate of the classical Turkic type. The rest, by different reasons, remained mainly confederations of tribes and did not feel the desire to create a more durable political entity - the state. Those of them who were forced out of the steppe zone into the zone of settled or semi-sedentary farming, for example, the Hungarians (a mixed Ugric-Turkic group of tribes that experienced strong Khazar influence) and part of the Oghuz, led by the Seljuks, created states, but either according to the Christian (Hungary, Danube Bulgaria), or according to the Islamic (Seljuk power) model. And all these Turkic communities, including both the full-fledged state of Khazaria, and the tribal unions of the Pechenegs, Western Oguzes (Torks of Russian sources) and Kuman-Kipchaks (Polovtsy) - no matter how great their military achievements and the high level of development of trade, not too then they advanced in the creation of literary monuments based on their own linguistic tradition. From the Khazars, for example, although they undoubtedly needed writing, only documents in Hebrew remained, which is a consequence of the Judaization of the ruling class. While their native language, regarding which there are still many unresolved issues, is known mainly from toponyms and personal names of famous Khazars mentioned in the annals of neighboring settled peoples. The Balkan Bulgars, who lived in territorial proximity and under the cultural influence of Byzantium, and ruled the Slavic majority, in which they eventually dissolved, left only scattered Bulgaro-Greek (and in Greek letters) and Slavic-Bulgarian inscriptions.

Their tribesmen on the Volga, who converted to Islam in the 10th century (922), left a number of grave inscriptions (dating mainly from the era of Genghisids, XIII-XIV centuries), made in Arabic writing, in a highly developed Arab-Bulgarian language. Undoubtedly, the Volga Bulgaria, as an Islamic center, used the Arabic language to communicate with the outside world. But the written material, although this can be disputed, testifies to a stable Bulgar written tradition. True, the Volga Bulgaria in this respect, as in many others, is not a typical case, since it arose in the forest-steppe zone with a significant Finno-Ugric population, and has gone far from the classical nomadic way of life.

It is interesting to note that, unlike the Turkic peoples of Central and Inner Asia (Turks, Uighurs, Karakhanids), the Western Eurasian Turkic peoples did not record significant literary monuments either in Turkic runes, although they used several variants of this letter, or with the help of any some other script at their disposal (Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Georgian). This obvious lack of literary ambitions (which, however, can still be refuted by archeology) is most likely due to the weak expression of political organization among such peoples as the Pechenegs, Western Oguzes (Torks), Cuman-Kypchaks (Polovtsy). So we should not be surprised that the most significant monument associated with the language of one of the most powerful tribal confederations - Codex Cumanicus - in general, is not actually a Cuman (Polovtsian) work. But, before taking up the Codex itself, we should talk a little about the people whose language it is dedicated to.

A very complex knot of problems that has formed around the question of the ethnogenesis of the Kuman-Kypchaks (Polovtsy) still remains unraveled. Even the true name of this confederation of tribes remains unclear. Western (Byzantine and Latin), and occasionally Russian sources call them Comani , Cumani , Kumani - kumans, comans. The medieval Hungarians, with whom they had strong ties and to whose lands they fled to escape the Mongols, knew them by the name kuna (Kun). This name can undoubtedly be correlated with the ethnonym Qun Muslim authors (such as al-Biruni and al-Marwazi, the remarks on this subject by Yakut and al-Bakuwi are obviously borrowed from al-Biruni), which, according to al-Marwazi, becomes known as a result of the migration of the Cuman-Kipchaks (Cuman- Qipcaqs) to the west. However, it is not clear whether the term Qun in turn can be correlated with the ethnonym - Hun (*un) = Xun/Qun - people who were part of a confederation of tribes tele/tokuz-oguz (T‘ieh–le/Toquz Oguz – tokuz–Oghuz – lit. 9 tribes – ancient Uighurs).

Ancient Turkic sources call the elements that formed the Cuman-Kypchak (Cuman-Qipcaq) tribal union Kybchak, and, possibly, some other names. The same ethnonym Qibcaq– was chosen by Muslim authors (for example, in the forms xifjax, Qifjaq, Qipcaq etc.) and Transcaucasian sources (for example, Georgian - Qivc'aq-, Armenian - xbsax). In translated form, it was also adopted by some other neighboring settled peoples. Namely: in Russian - halves, Cumans(> in Polish, Czech - Plauci, Hungarian - palocz), in Latin - Pallidi, in Germanic and Germano-Latin sources - Falones, Phalagi, Valvi, Valewen etc., in Armenian - Xartes- all these names are considered to be translations of the Turkic qu / *qub or another close form - "pale, yellowish, yellow-brown, faded." In turn, a number of other sources no less confidently call this people kangly (Qangli), the name by which the easternmost - Central Asian - offshoot of the Cuman-Kypchak (Cuman-Qipcaq) tribal confederation was known.

These tribes included Turkic, Mongolian, as well as Iranian elements that preceded them (in these steppes). However, the language of intertribal communication - lingua franca - of the confederation became a certain Turkic dialect, which we now call the Kypchak (Qipcaq) language, some dialects of which are reflected in the Codex Cumanicus.

The Kuman-Kypchaks (Cuman-Qipcaqs) ruled the steppe, which stretched from modern Ukraine before Central Asia, where they made up a significant part of the population and played a prominent role due to marriage ties with the ruling dynasty of Khorezm. To no lesser extent, they were connected with Russia (with which they often fought), with Georgia (where many of them moved and where they converted to Christianity), with Hungary and the Balkans, where later, under the patronage of the Mongols, the Cuman Terterid dynasty was created. (Terterids).

Kumano-Kypchak hegemony also covered most of the Crimea. As in other areas, their interests in Crimea were predominantly commercial. In the pre-Chingizid period, they collected tribute from the Crimean cities. Sudak, an ancient trading center, was perceived by ibn al-Athir (beginning of the 13th century) as

“the city of the Kypchaks (Qifjaq), from which their wealth flows. It is located on the shores of the Khazar (i.e. Black) Sea. Ships come there loaded with fabrics. Kypchaks (Qifjiqs) buy (from them) and sell them concubines and slaves; Burtas (Burtases - the people who lived on the middle Volga) furs, beavers, squirrels ... This is the city of the Kipchaks (Polovtsy), from which they receive their goods, because it (lies) on the shores of the Khazar Sea, and ships with clothes; the latter are sold, and girls and slaves, Burtas furs, beavers, squirrels and other items that are on their land are bought with them.

Thanks to the political dominance of the Cumans, their language became the lingua franca of the region. It also spread among other peoples living there. Thus, the Crimean Armenian and Karaite (Karaite Jewish) communities adopted this language and kept it for centuries even far from the Crimea, which they were forced to leave as a result of the Mongol conquest of the Kypchak lands, which ended in the late 30s of the XIII century. Some Kypchak tribes (primarily led by Khan Kotyan (Kten)) then migrated to Hungary. Most of them became part of the Mongol Empire. Thus, the empire of the Turks, which once united all nomads (pan-nomadic empire of the Turks), was recreated, and even on a larger scale. At the same time, the Kypchak language did not recede into the background at all, on the contrary: in a century (after) the Great Conquest, it turned into the language of interethnic communication for the western part of the Chingizid state. Therefore, the Mamluk (i.e. Egyptian) scholar al-Umari (al-'Umari) (d. 1348), noted that the Tatars (i.e. Mongols), whose number (in Europe) was already small, and in whose the ranks already included numerous Turkic elements from Inner and Central Asia, actively intermarried with the local Turkic population and, as a result, became Kypchakized.

In the second half of the 13th century (starting from the 60s), when the Genghisids began to squabble over territory, the Jochids, whose residence was the city of Sarai, who fought against the Iranian Hulaguids, found valuable allies in the person of the Mamluk rulers of the Egyptian Sultanate, whom they continued to supply slaves (Mamluks) through the ports of Crimea. The spread of Islam among the Mongols (in the state of Jochid), which began under Khan Berk (1257-1266) and culminated under Khan Uzbek (1313-1341), contributed to the strengthening of this alliance.

II. Dating and origin of the document

Codex Cumanicus, which is currently in the library of St. Mark in Venice (Cod. Mar. Lat. DXLIX) is not one solid (single), but several unrelated (if not considered in a broad sense) works at once, which, however, were united under a common cover. The Codex can be divided into 2 apparently independent parts:

1. a guide to the Cuman language, consisting of Italian(Latin)-Persian-Cuman dictionaries of terms compiled by topic and application;
2. a collection of religious texts, linguistic information, materials on folklore (Polovtsian riddles) by several different authors, with translations into Latin and into the medieval dialect of Eastern Middle High German. It is also obvious that additions were repeatedly made to both parts.

Scholars have christened these two clearly different parts simply: Italian and German, which is undoubtedly true in relation to the ethno-linguistic origin of the authors of these parts and their environment. But the definition of Ligeti, who called the first part the Interpretor's Book and the second the Missionaries' Book, appears to be more precise and closer to the truth.

The first mention of the Codex, according to which he was once in the library of Petrarch (1304–1375), the great Italian humanist, dates back to the 17th century. True, this statement was later recognized as erroneous. Dates and places of creation of various sections of the Codex Bazin, who studied the calendrical records with particular care (CC, 72/80-81), concluded that the Interpretor's Book was most likely compiled between 1293 and 1295. Drüll ), meanwhile, suggested an even slightly earlier date, 1292-1295, the date found in the Venetian list (Venice ms.) "MCCCIII die XI Iuly" (1303, the day of July 11th.) (CC, 1/1) should be considered as the date of creation (or the beginning of creation) of the first copy.The Venetian copy, as shown by the analysis of the paper on which it is written, was made no earlier than the middle of the 13th century (the date of manufacture of the paper).Missionaries' Book ), combining several sources at once, was compiled approximately in 1330–1340. There are other elements in it, most likely added later. The names of its authors are unknown, but most likely they came from the Franciscan community. The German Franciscans, who played an important role in the creation of the Missionary Book, came from an environment that spoke the Eastern High Germanic dialect.

The translator's book ("Interpretor's Book") was compiled by Italian merchants (Venetians or Genoese) or their scribes in Solgat / Solkhat (Solxat) (Eski Krim - Old Crimea southwest of Kafa and northeast of Sudak; until the end of the 14th century it was called Solkhat, then Crimea, and since the 17th century the Old (Eski) Crimea or in Kaffa (Feodosia).There is reason to assert that more than one person (but most likely many different people). The first copy (1303) is believed to have been made at St. John's Monastery near Saray. A later copy, preserved in Venice, dated circa 1330-1340, most likely comes from a Franciscan monastery. In it, too, most likely, separate, previously unrelated sections of the Codex "a were brought together. Then, somehow, these parts again fell into Italian hands, this time in Venice. Thus, this document is a mixture of fragments of different sizes and created or compiled for different purposes.The Interpretor's Book was largely, though not exclusively, practical, commercial in nature.The Missionaries' Book, in addition to its purely linguistic purpose, contains sermons, psalms and other religious texts, and besides, a selection of Cuman riddles.

The Venetians and Genoese actively participated (while being competitors) in the Crimean trade. This trade, as we know, thanks to the testimony of contemporaries such as Pegolotti (Pegolotti), went in stages: from Tanais (Azov - the main transshipment point for goods sent from Asia to the Crimea) to the lower Volga (Astrakhan-Saray), and from there to the Urals and Khorezm, and from there, finally, to China. They traded a very wide range of goods, for example: wax, metals (including precious ones), spices and other foodstuffs, silk and other fabrics, valuable furs, etc. The Italian trading colonies in the Crimea, of course, had a regular connection with Tanais (Azov). There were also contacts with Iran of the Ilkhans through Trebizond. True, Drüll proves that the author(s) of the Latin-Persian-Cuman dictionary included in the Interpretor's Book was most likely a Genoese(s) who worked(-them) in Kaffa , since only the Genoese had connections with merchants simultaneously from the power of the Jochids (Golden Horde) and from the power of the Ilkhans (Iran). Although Italian traders did not participate in the slave trade (trade of the Mamluks) with Egypt, this field of activity had a long history in the Crimea. This is still evidenced by a modern Kazakh proverb: uli irimga, qizi Qirimga ketti - “The son was taken hostage, and the daughter went to the Crimea (i.e. into slavery)”. The aforementioned trilingual dictionary also reflects this direction of trade, along with an extensive list of other consumer goods.

III. Languages ​​in CODEX CUMANICUS

The Latin language of the Codex "a is represented by two options, indicating the ethno-linguistic affiliation of the authors, as well as the level of their education. Latin The translator's books ("Interpretor's Book") are folk Italian-Latin (Vulgar Italo-Latin), while the Missionaries' Book presents more "correct" language, reflecting the theological training of the Franciscan authors. The Persian material of the Codex has been the subject of study in two recent works. Daoud Monchi-Zadeh proves that the Persian material has passed through a kind of Cuman filter: was translated by Cuman-speaking intermediaries.On the other hand, Andras Bodgrogligeti suggests that the Persian language served as the international language (lingua franca) of Eastern trade, as a result of which it was subjected, to varying degrees, to standardization, the influence of other languages, and simplification.Some the words in it are archaic, and some are unusual.In short, it does not look like a living language, native to its native speaker, but rather like a kind of simplified Koine.

Codex Cuman (CC) is also a kind of lingua franca that was understood throughout Central Asia. However, its representation in the Code (CC) is not quite correct, since it (CC) was compiled, as we remember, by non-Turkic-speaking authors who spoke the language to varying degrees. There are quite a lot of "incorrect" syntactic constructions, as well as grammatical and phonetic errors, as well as translation errors. Some of them are the result of a misconception about the language or scribal errors. Other deviations from the Turkic "norm" can be attributed to the literal (word by word), literal translation. This method of translation is very characteristic of the Middle Ages, especially when it comes to the translation of sacred, religious texts. For example, in the language of Karaites, the closest relative of the Cuman language of the Codex (SS), we find the following sentence: kisi edi yerind'a Ucnun, Iyov semi anin da edi ol kisi ol t'g'l da t'z, qorxuvcu t'enrid' n (There was a man in the country of Uz, whose name was Job, and this man was blameless and honest and God-fearing. Book of Job, 1), word for word repeating the Hebrew (i.e. biblical) text. Some forms that are not entirely Turkic in appearance can be attributed to the influence of the compilers of the Codex, whose native languages ​​were: Italian/Italo-Latin and Germanic. Many of these forms are of unclear origin, however, since a similar phenomenon is observed in other Turkic languages, it is quite possible that in this case this is the result of the influence of the Indo-European languages.

Much more interesting, although hardly unexpected (considering how many authors had a hand in the document), is the fact that the lexical material of the Code covers several Kypchak dialects at once. This is especially noticeable when comparing the spelling of the same words in two main sections:

In some cases, several dialects are presented in the same part at once, for example, in the Interpretor's Book (CC, 52/57, 57/61): lat. similo, p ers. chomana mecumem(homana mekunm “I resemble” - I resemble, I resemble) godmother. oscarmen (osqarmen ); (CC, 76/86) lat. similtudo, Persian. manenda godfather oasamac (or oosamac what grnbech reads like oqsamaq) and in the Missionaries' Book (CC, 141/199) ovsadi ("resembled, was like" - resembled, was similar), (CC, 162/226) ovsar "enlich"; (CC, 131/183) job sngnc (ypsengenca ) "sin quod tu approbas, (what you tried, approved)" (CC, 140/195), iopsinip (ypsinip ) : ypsen -/ypsin - "billigen, genehmigen, gutheissen" - to approve.

The well-known alternation of sounds in the Kypchak languages g > w/v appears very clearly in the Missionaries' Book. The same can be said about another characteristic Kypchak alternation q > x. (For example, yoqsul > yoxsul « arm "hand", mettellos"). The Interpretor's Book, on the other hand, features an older and more conservative dialect.

It may also be noted that in cases where the Missionaries Book transmits sound j in words of non-Turkic origin by the letter g(For example, gahan = jahan "world/universe », gan = Jan « soul », gomard = jomard « generous "(all borrowings from Persian), in the Translator's Book is either j, or y. Perhaps this indicated the pronunciation through y(although in the Persian forms themselves j often goes into i): jaghan= yahan or jahan, jomard, jomart= yomard or jomard, joap= yowap or jowap(< араб. jawab"answer") and yanauar= yanawar or janavar. Such an alternation j > y at the beginning of a word is also known in some (modern) Kypchak dialects, especially in loan words, for example, in the Bashkir language yawap- answer, yemeyt society, community< араб. jam'iyat), yihan- Universe (< перс. jihan, jahan).

Finally, v/w in intervocalic position, which Grnbech usually transcribes as v, may well represent the sound w, for example: (CC, 65/72) youac = yovac or yowac - opposite (CC, 102/121); culgau = culgav or culgaw - footcloths, windings for legs (CC, 90/105); carauas = qaravas or qarawas - servant, slave (CC, 139/192); coat = qovat or qowat (< араб. quwwat) - power, power (CC, 109, 113 / 130,134); tauc , taoh = tavuq or tawuq , tavox or tawox - chicken.

Many private orthographic features (for example, s can be written in letters s, z, x, sch so the word bass"head" in the Interpretor's Book is spelled (CC, 29,86, 94,/30,99,109) bass , bax ; and in the Missionaries Book (CC, 121,126,128/161,171,175) bas, basch, baz /// basqa "except, apart" in Interpretors's Book (CC, 64/70) bascha, and in the Missionaries' Book (CC, 121,123,138/158,163,189)baska, baschka, bazkaclearly indicates that the Codex consists of many documents of different authors, as well as insufficient efforts on its general editing. So, many reading options should be considered conditional.

The Interpretor's Book is 110 pages long (CC,1-110/1-131). Pages 1–58/1–63 contain a number of verbs arranged in alphabetical order(according to the Latin alphabet) in Latin, Persian and Cuman. It starts with the verb audio. Examples of some forms of this verb are given below:

Audirem"were I to hear" (if I had to hear)
// ysalla mes(i)nde(isalla mesinidm "if I should only hear" - if I should only hear)
// chescha esitkaedim (keske esitqayedim/esitkeyedim );

audiuisse(m)"If had heard" (if I heard)
// y sinada budim(isalla sina budim "if I had only heard" - if I only heard)
// esitmis bolgayedim (keske esitmis bolgayedim );

audiam"if I should hear"
// y besnoem(isalla besnowm "if I should only hear")
// esitchaymen (keske esitqaymen / esitkeymen "would I hear");

audience(m)"were I to hear"
// zonchi mesnide(m)(conki mesinidm "since I hear")
// esittim essa (esittim ese );

audiences"were you to hear"
// z messidi(conki mesinidi "since you hear")
// nezic chi esiti(n)gassa (necik ki esiting ese"lorsque tu as entendu");

audioim(=audiverim) "were I to have heard"
// z s(.)ndidem(conki sinidm "since I heard")
// esittim ersa (esittim erse );

audience"to listen"
// sanadae(n) (sanadn)
// esitmaga, yzitmaga (esitmege, isitmege ), - to hear, to listen;

audiences"the one who hears, the listener"
// sanoenda (sanownda"he who hears")
// esattan (esatgan = esitgen ) – listener;

auditurus"one who will hear, is about to hear"
// ghoet sinidn (xoht sinidan"he who wants to listen")
// esitmaga cuyga (esitmege-kyge « one who intends to listen, hear") - the future (probable, possible) listener.

None of the other verbs is treated in such detail. In most cases, 3-5 conjugations are given, for example (CC, 5/6):
adiuuo // yari medehem (yari medehm) // boluzurmen (bolusurmen ), "I help" - I help;
adiuuaui // yari dadem (yari dadm) // boluztum (bolustum ), “I helped” - I helped;
adiuua // yari bide (yari bideh) // bolus (bolus ) "help!" - help (those)!
adiutorium // yari (yari) // bolusmac (bolusmaq ) "help, aid" - help, help.

Some Latin verbs are translated by two Cuman verbs at once, for example:
(CC, 6/7) albergo hospito "I lodge - I receive, accommodate guests, show hospitality"
// ghana cabul mecunem (xana qabul mekunm)
// conaclarmen vel condururmen (qonaqlarmen or qondururmen )
(CC, 9/10) balneo aliquid "I wash something - bathe something"
// tarmecunem (tar mekunm) "I wet - I wet (make wet)"
// us etarmen vel iuunurmen (us etermen or yuvunurmen ).

In some cases, in addition to verb forms, verbal nouns are given, for example: (CC, 12/13)
coquo "I cook (food)" // mepaxem (mepazm // bisuturmen (bistrmen );
coqui "I cooked (food)" // pohten (poxtm) // bisurdum (bisrdm )
coque "cook (food)!" // bepoh(bepox) // bisur (bisr )
bagerzi (bagirci< baqir"copper" cf. with Nogai baqirsi bala "a young man serving people in the role of a cook at a copper cauldron");
coquina "kitchen" // muthagh (= mutbax "kitchen") // as bisurgan eu (as bisrgen ew (lit. "a house where food is cooked").

Compound Verbs

(From this point on, the Persian form will be omitted, except when it explains the Cuman, and the Cuman form will be given in the transcription):

yk tsrrmen "I'm unloading"
tinimdan kecermen "I'm desperate (desperate)"
(CC, 19/21 eligo "I choose") kngl icinde ayturmen "I choose (lit. " I say what's in my heart (i.e. what my heart tells me))"
eygirek etermen "I improve"
(CC, 35/37, nauigo "I am sailing on the sea in a ship" // dar driya merowm "I am traveling on the sea") // tengizda yrrmen ("I'm going by sea")
qulluq etermen « I serve (I work/I am a servant)"

Compound verbs with Arabic elements also well presented. Moreover, these elements are not always present in the corresponding Persian compound verbs:
(CC,20/21) denpingo (sic) "I paint" // naqs mekunm // naqslarmen (< араб. naqs"drawing"),
(CC, 23/25) expendo "I spend" // xarj mekunm // xarj etermen etc.

But, for comparison:
(CC,44/47–48) quito "I quit (I quit)" // raha mekunm // tabs etermen (< араб. tabs"flight, escape, rescue (flight)").

Compound verbs with Persian elements . In many cases it is quite possible to assume that the Arab elements entered Cuman through Persian intermediation. Here are given the words, the etymology of which is purely Persian.
(CC,23/26) estimo"I appreciate"
// Baha mekunm"I'm estimating (I guess, estimating the price)"
// bacha ussurmen (baha usurmen « I'm estimating (I'm guessing, estimating the price)",
KWb., p.266 reads this as baha ur- "schtzen bewerten - evaluate"< paha"price";
(CC, 42/454) penito"I'm sorry" // pesman m , pesman bolurmen < перс. pesman"penitent".

The verb "to have" has three forms: (CC, 29/30–313)
habeo"I have" mende bar;
habui"I have mastered (got)" tagdi (< tag- “treffen - hit the target, overtake, meet; berhren – ...; erreichen- to get to something, to reach; gelangen- hit, reach, reach; zuteil werden- fall to someone's lot");
habeas"you have! - Get (those)! dar“Have! - Have it! saga/sanga bolsun « may you have! - You can have!

Adverbs

The verb section (CC, 59–65/64–72) is followed by the adverb section (many of which are represented by postpositive forms), for example:

(CC, 54/61) ante"before" eng borun or ilgeri

ab"from, from" idan

aput"near, about, near" qatinda (< qat« site der raum neben oder bei etwas")

Brevitur"soon, soon" Turklep

bene"Fine" yaqsi or eyegi

Benigne"mercifully, cordially" xos kngl bile (lit. " with a good heart")

com"with (possessive)" birle , bile

(CC, 61/66) hodie"Today" bu kn

(CC, 61/67) ideo“therefore, for this, in view of this” aning-cn

jam"now, already" saat

digar"immediately, immediately" bir anca or imdi

(CC, 62/68) multum"much" kp

malicioxe"maliciously, insidiously, wickedly" yaman kngl bile (lit. "with a bad (not good, evil) heart")

non"No" yoq

nihil"nothing, nothing" hec-neme-tagi

(CC, 62/69) postea"then, after" songra

(CC, 63/70) quid"What?" ne

(CC, 64/70) sane"healthy (healthy)" sagliq bile (lit. "with health").

Personal pronouns

(CC, 66–68/72–74) follow the list of adverbs, for example:

ego "I" men

mei "me (sp.)" mening

michi "me" manga

me "me(win.p.)" meni

ame "from me" menden

nos "we" biz etc.

(CC, 68/74) (Lat.) ipse met "himself" anlar ox (anlar z?) "they themselves."

The same section includes a number of indeclinable names ( indeclinable nouns), For example:

alius"other (than than)" zge

(CC, 69/74) omnis"All" tegme or barca

Solus"alone, alone, alone" yalguz

talis"such (of this type/kind)" falan

qualis"Which? (what type/kind?)" qaysi

And basic adjectives , For example:

ulu « big"
/// kici "small"
/// yaqsi or eyegi " good"
/// yaman "bad"
/// yngl "easy"
/// Agir "heavy".

Dictionary of Religious Concepts

(CC, 70/77) Tengri "God" (lit. "heaven" (Mongolian)
/// Maryam qaton « Queen (<небесная) (Дева>) Mary "- the Mother of God - mater dey (lat.) / friste" angel "
/// peygambar « prophet"
/// ari , algisli "holy, sacred" santus (lat.)
/// xac « cross"
/// bapas " priest"
/// tre « law"
/// yarligamaq « mercy, mercy"
/// bazliq « peace (calm)"
/// tengri svmeklig "Love of God" , mercy (caritas (lat.), dosti–i xuda (pers.)).

4 Elements

(CC, 71/78–79): hawa "wind" and salqon "wind" (compare with Mongolian salkin"wind" and ancient Turkic salqim"cold, frost, frost" Siberian-Tatar (Siberian Turkic) salqin"strong, cold wind») /// su "water" /// yer " Earth" /// ot "fire".

Body parts

(CC, 71/79): qan " blood" /// balgam slime "phlegm ( qursaq "belly" /// sari "bile (yellow)" (lit. "yellow", cf. pers. Safra (< Ar. safra «желтый») /// Sauda « sadness, sadness, melancholy» (cf. pers. Sauda < Ar. Sauda"black (bile)").

Terms describing the passage of time (i.e. related to the measurement of time) (CC, 71–72/78–81): yil "year", ay "moon, month (calendar based on the lunar cycle - 28–29 days)", kn " day", kece or tn " night". This very complete section also contains the names of the days of the week (mostly derived from Persian), as well as the names of the months of the year:

tu–sanbe (

se–sanbe (

caar–sanbe (< Pers.) «Среда»

pan-sanbe (< Pers.) «Четверг»

ayna (

sabat kn" Saturday" ( sabat originally derived from the Hebrew Saturday. This word can also be found in Karaite (sabat kn, no wonder), Armeno-Kuman (sapat’ k‘un) and Karachay-Balkarian ( sabat kn) languages ​​are all Western Kipchak languages ​​descended from Cuman. This cultural word (culture-word) also entered the Chuvash ( samat, samat kun) and into the Volga Finnic languages ​​(Cheremis/Mari sumat, Votyaks/Udmurts sumot), probably through the language of the Volga Bulgars. But in all these cases, the language of the Khazars should most likely be considered a common source.)

ye–sanbe"Sunday"

aybasi"First day of the month" (calends).

The following is the Cuman calendar (3) (with Latin (1) and Perso-Islamic (2) equivalents):

(The combination of the months of the Christian (Julian) and Muslim calendars in this section gives rise to the calculation of the date of its compilation. It is believed that the closest matches occur in 1227, 1259, 1292, 1324, 1357).

5 senses

CC, 72/81): kormek " vision" /// esitmek "rumor" /// tatmaq " taste" /// iylamaq "smell" /// tutmaq "touch".

A few more words related to nature, cardinal points (CC, 73/81–82): kun towusi " East", kun batisi "west" yarix, yariq "clear (clean), bright", bulud "cloud" (given as a correspondence to the Latin nubiloxum "cloudy"), etc.

Antonyms

(CC, 73-74/83-84):

jift "similar, similar, pair (paired)" /// par, hamta, taq "dissimilar, different (from)"

behamta, dispar, btn " whole" /// sinuq "broken"

tatli " sweet" /// aci "bitter"

sismis "Swollen, swollen (bump!)" /// sisik ketken "bloating has passed, subsided" (compare with Persian. amahraft- “(bloating) has passed, fallen off).

Item properties

(CC, 75–77/85–88): eygilik "good(s)"

Sometimes these words are given in pairs of antonyms, for example:

yaqsi or eygi "good, kind"< >yaman "bad, evil"

korkul "beautiful"< >korksuz "ugly"

uzun "long"< >qisqa "short"

jigit "young, youth"< >abusqa or qart "old, old man"

tiri "alive"< >"dead"

Objects of the world

(CC, 78–79/88–90):

jahan "world, universe"

tengiz "sea"

tag "mountain"

yol "road"

tos/toz "dust, powder"

terek (ancient Turkic "poplar" in Kypchak began to mean "tree" in general)

yemis "fruit, fruit"

sa(h)ar or kent "city"

qala/qalaa "fortress, castle"

xala "village"

saray "palace"

ev/ew "house"

kebit or tugan "shop (trade)"

kopru "bridge".

Commerce, product names and related terms

(CC, 80/90–91):

saraf "banker"

tarazu "scale"

bitik or taftar (lat. cartularius"ledger, calendar", pers. taqwim"calendar")

naqt or aqca "money"

borclular "debtors"

bitik "letter, letter" (lat. litera, pers. xat) etc.

More extensive lists of titles follow. goods and handicrafts (CC, 80–86/91–99) and titles professions related to them. Many of these words are "international", often of Indian origin, but passed through the Persian and Arabic filters (i.e. languages):

atar(< Араб. ‘attar) «торговец пряностями»

comlek "pan, pot"

sakar/seker "sugar" (< среднеиранск. sakar < санскрит sarkara)

bal "honey"

burc "pepper" (< санскрит marica через иранский)

jinjibil "ginger" (< араб. zinjibil < санскрит sringgavera),

darcini "cinnamon" (< перс.),

nil "indigo (blue fabric dye)" (< перс. nil < Санскрит nili),

qondroq "incense, incense" (< перс. kundurak «мастика (смола мастикового дерева)»

baqam "fernambuque (Brazilian beech), ? maybe just beech or mahogany or redwood in general? (< baqqam)

tutiya "zinc" (< Араб. tutiya’ < Санскрит tuttha) и т.д.

oglanlar "servants"

otlar "herbs (especially medicinal)"

maajunlar "healing powders, powdered (or dissolved to a state of slurry) medicines (< Араб. ma‘jun)»

altunci "jeweler, goldsmith"

temirci "blacksmith (temir - iron)"

caquc "hammer"

temir "iron"

kmis "silver"

altun "gold"

baqir "copper"

qalaj, aq qorgasin "tin (aq qorgasin - lit. white lead)"

qorgasin "lead" (< монг. qorgaljin?)

kmr "coal (stone)"

kre "blacksmith's forge"

tonci "furrier, furrier" (< язык саков (Saka) – thauna «одежда»)

igine "ig(o)l(k)a"

bicqi "saw"

oymaq "thimble"

ip "thread"

tlk "fox(its)a"

teyin "squirrel"

qara teyin "black squirrel (i.e. caught in winter when the skin of the squirrel is dark gray)"

kis "sable"

silevsn (< монг. silegsn),

teri ton "fur coat"

derzi (< перс.), cekmen « шерстяная одежда (чекмень?)»

qipti "thin stockings"

arsun, qari "yard"

tsek "mattress, cushion"

etikci "shoemaker"

basmaq "shoe"

balta "axe"

burav "fortune teller, soothsayer (augur)"

trg "chisel, chisel, cutter"

toqmaq "wooden hammer, mallet", etc.

Shaving, barber's tools

(CC, 86–87/100)

ylci "barber, barber"

ylngc "razor"

saqal "beard"

kzg "mirror"

tas "barber's basin(!)"

snglce "lancet" (a surgical instrument used in the Middle Ages for therapeutic bloodletting (to reduce pressure), which was included in the list of barber services)

bilev "whetstone"

ot (cf. otlar above and otaci below)

Malahan (< перс.Malaham < араб. marham) "healing ointment"

Professions

CC, 87–90/100–104):

qlic ostasi "master who makes swords (blades)"

eyerci "saddle maker"

ygenci "bridle maker"

otaci "doctor (therapist and surgeon rolled into one)"

xkmci (arab. hukm) "lawyer, lawyer, judge"

siqriq "messenger, courier"

yalci "pommel-maker"; pommel - 1) front pommel of the saddle; 2) hilt (saber, dagger, etc., i.e. the manufacturer of either the first or the second

astlanci « reseller, broker»

talal, miyanci (< араб. перс.) «брокер»

br(k)ci "capmaker - a master of making hats"

naqslagan (arab. naqs) "artist"

qulluqci "servant"

julaxak (< перс. jullahak) «ткач»

yaqci "master who makes bows (for shooting)"

qobuzci "musician (probably a kobuz/komus player"

bitik ostasi "scientist (scribe)", etc.

The following words have been added to this list: etmek « bread", urluq « seed, grain, tb « root", olturguclar « seats (seats, maybe even chairs)”, is « Job", kc « labor” (probably the labor of a nomad - koch), etc.

Political titles, positions and related terms

(CC, 90/104-105):

qan "khan"

soltan (< араб.) «султан»

beg "running, beck"

bey

ceribasi "commander, commander of an army"

elci "messenger"

yarguci "judge (lat. potestas, pers. sana < араб. sahna"prefect")

Seriyat (< араб. sar‘iyyah «исламский закон»), «судья» (лат. consul, pers. qadi(kadi)

bogavul / bogawul "servant in court, court servant" (lat. placerius, pers. tatawul) < мong. buqawul(see below)

atlu kisi "mounted warrior"

qan qatuni "khan's wife, khansha"

evdegi / ewdegi epci "servant"

tilmac "translator (interpreter)", etc.

Bazaar, goods

(CC, 91-92/105-108):

bazargan "merchant, shopkeeper"

satuq "craft, trade"

alici "buyer"

satugci/satuqci "seller"

behet (< араб. bai‘at «коммерческая сделка» ) "cash contribution, deposit, payment in cash"

tlemek "(o)fee"

naqt (arab. naqd) "money"

kendir "hemp, hemp"

skli "linen"

fanar (< греч.) « лампа, фонарь»

qoz "nut"

cuz "light (thin) taffeta"

g yungi “owl feather (brush?)” (for example, in Russian villages, a dried (and unplucked) chicken wing was used as a brush)”

baliq "fish"

brinc "rice"

ipek "silk"

frangi suf "Western European (Frankish) wool (yarn), fabric for screening, screening"

isqarlat (Medieval Latin scarlata< араб. перс. saqallat) "scarlet (color)"

kvrk "sulphur"

jonban ketan "Champagne linen"

Rusi ketan "Russian linen"

alamani ketan "German linen"

orlens ketan "linen from Orleans", etc.

Colors

(CC,92-93/107-108):

aq "white" /// qara "black" /// qizil "red" /// qrimizi "crimson" /// kk "blue" /// sari "yellow" /// yasil "green" /// ipkin "purple", etc.

Gems

(CC, 93/108=109):

yaqut(< араб.) «рубин»

laal (< араб.) «бадахшанский рубин» (ср. со старорус. lal)

kabut, yapqut "sapphire"

zmurut (probably from zumrut, zumurut< перс. араб. zumurrud < греч.) «изумруд»

yalmas (< Перс. almas < Греч.) «алмаз, бриллиант»

ingc(< китайск.) «жемчуг» и т.д.

Man, body parts

(CC, 94-96/109-113):

azam(< араб. Adam), kisi "male, person (in general)"

epci "woman"

bas "head"

elat (< араб. axlat) "humors"

alin, manglay< монг.) «лоб»

qas "eyebrow"

kirpik "eyelid"

qulaq/qulax "ear"

kz "eye"

kz yaruxi "light of the eye (eye white, eye shine)"

burun/burin "nose"

yangaq "cheek"

tis "tooth"

til "tongue"

qursaq "belly (stomach)"

kngl "heart"

icex, sucux "intestine(s), intestines"

teri "skin"

qol "arm (whole)"

qoymic "coccyx"

tamar "vein"

qan "blood"

el, qol "hand"

barmaq "finger"

ayaq "foot (legs)"

tin "soul", etc.

Family, relatives

(CC, 97/113-115):

at(t)a "father"

anna "mother"

er "husband"

epci "wife"

ogul "son"

qiz "daughter"

qarandas "brother"

qiz qarandas "sister"

ul(l)u at(t)a " grandfather" (lit. big father)

qayin "father-in-law"

kyeg "son-in-law"

abaga "uncle (< монг.)»

ini "nephew"

ortaq, nger (< монг. (нукер), «друг, товарищ»

qonsi "neighbour", etc.

good qualities of people

(CC, 97-98/115-116):

tkel "whole, unharmed"

yaqsi, eygi "good"

barlu kisi "rich (person)"

ustlu, aqil (< араб.) «умный, смышлёный»

krkl "attractive, handsome"

kn "lawful, legal"

xalal ogul "legitimate son"

zden "noble (noble), free (not a slave)"

erdemli "virtuous, chaste"

kcl "strong"

tanur kisi "experienced (experienced) person"

sver kisi "amiable (friendly) person"

erseksiz "chaste"

qiliqli "honest", etc.

human flaws

(CC, 98-99/116-117):

yaman "bad"

yarli, yoqsul "poor"

qart, abusqa "old(man)"

teli, aqmaq (< араб. ahmaq) "crazy, stupid"

soqur, calis "oblique, suffering from strabismus"

kzsiz (lit. without eyes)

kr "blind"

tvlk "blind"

kniden towgan "illegitimate, bastard"

aqsax "lame"

tasaqsiz "castrated (lit. without tasaq)"

qaltaq "procurer"

qulaqsiz "deaf (lit. without ear)"

tilsiz "mute (lit. no tongue)"

trkci "liar"

yazuqlu "sinful, sinful"

egri kisi "false person (false person)", etc.

Items related to the military

ceri "army"

sancis "war"

sagit(< ?) «оружие (arms)»

sirdaq (compare with Mong. siri-deg "gesteppte Filzdecke - steppe felt blanket, saddlepad - blanket," siri- "to quilt, tamp clothes with cotton") "coat, quilted outerwear"

tovulga/towulga "helmet"

kbe "mail"

btlk "cuirass (armour, protecting the back and chest)"

qlic "sword (sword - sword, sword, rapier, saber - all types of blades)"

bicaq "knife", etc.

House related things

izba (East Slavic languages) "room"

boxorik (< перс.) «печь»

yuzaq "castle"

acquc "key"

qadav/qadaw "nail"

olturguc “a seat, a place where they sit (the nomads usually didn’t have chairs, but there were places in the yurt where they sit”, etc.

Sewing, clothes

(CC, 101/119): opraq "clothing" /// teri ton "clothes of fur" /// tvme/twme "button" /// yeng "sleeve", etc.

Construction

(CC, 101-102/119-120): tb "foundation" /// tas "stone" /// kirec "limestone (stone)" /// qum "sand" /// su "water" /// taqta, qanga" floor" /// tik agac "column" /// kerpic« burnt brick /// aginguc« ladder (attached)”, etc.

Some items of clothing and travel equipment

(CC, 101–102/120–121):

kvlek/kwlek "shirt"

kncek "trousers"

qur, beli-gab "belt (clothes)"

yanciq "purse (English text - purse - i.e. a wallet in the form of a waist pouch)"

kepes, brk "hat"

calma "turban, turban"

etik "book"

basmaq "shoe (shoe, boot), shoe"

tizge "garter"

artmaq "saddle bag"

yasman "flask"

catir "tent, marquee"

qamci "whip"

araba "a cart (with a wagon), an arba", etc.

horse breeding

(CC, 102-103/121-122):

at "horse"

naal (< араб.) «подкова»

ayran "stall"

eyer yabogi

tizgin "reins, reins"

aguzluq " bit, mouthpiece "

zengi "stirrup"

kmldrk "breast decoration on a horse" (lat. pectoralis)

yingircaq "pack saddle (on which luggage is attached)", etc.

Bedroom and bedding

(CC, 103–104/123): tsek “bed, bed” /// tsekning ayagi “tripod” /// yastuq “pillow” /// yorgan “blanket” /// kilim “carpet, plaid” /// gali/qali, kvz / kz "carpet" /// ksegen "curtains over (in front of) the bed", etc.

The table and what's on it

(CC, 104/123–124): tastar, sarpan "tablecloth" /// yiltrin, sise (< перс.) «бутылка» /// piyala (< перс.) «кубок, бокал (пиала)» /// bardaq « кружка, кувшин» /// ciraqliq « канделябр» /// as « еда» и т.д.

Kitchen and kitchen utensils

(CC, 104–105/124–125): qazan "pan, cauldron, pot - cauldron" /// cmic "ladle, ladle" /// qasuq "spoon" /// cmlet/cmlek "pot for cooking" /// yaglav/yaglaw "frying pan" /// qavurqina/qawurqina "a type of frying pan" (tianus (lat.), tawa (pers.)) /// ttn "smoke" /// yirgaq "cru(cho)k" /// tepsi(< среднекитайск.*deptsi) (см. ниже заимствования из монгольского: куманское tepsi"plate, dish" (in many Turkic dialects), Mong. tebsi "large oblong plate, wooden plate, tray, feeder"< китайск. tieh–tzu средне-китайск. dep tsi).

Trees and fruits

(CC, 105–106/125–126): terek "tree" /// butaq "bough, branch" /// yabuldraq "leaf" /// agac "tree, wood" /// klege "shadow" // /yemis "fruit" /// kiras "cherry" (< греч.) /// armut (< перс.), kertme « груша» /// alma « яблоко» /// catlavuq / catlawuq « орех обыкновенный (лещина)» /// qoz «орех» /// saftalu (< перс.) «персик» /// erik « слива» /// limon (сравни с итал. limome < араб. перс. laymun) "lemon" /// pistaq (< греч.) «фисташки» /// qovun « дыня» и т.д.

Herbs and vegetables

(CC, 106–107/126–127): sadaf (< перс.) «рута душистая (растение)» /// yisqic « мята» /// ispanaq (< перс. < греч.) «шпинат» /// marul (< греч.) «салат-латук» /// qabuq «корка, кожура» /// cgndr « морковь» и т.д.

Animal names

(CC, 107–108/127–129): janavar "beast (wild animal)" (< перс.) /// at « конь» /// astlan « лев» /// qistraq «кобыла» /// qatir « мул» /// esek « осёл (ишак)» /// tonguz «свинья» /// keyik tonguz « дикая свинья – кабан» /// kz, sigir « бык, вол» /// inek « корова» /// buzav / buzaw «телёнок» /// tisi qoy « овца» /// qocqar « баран» /// qozi « ягненок» /// ecke « козёл» /// it « собака» /// maci «cat" /// pil (< перс.) «слон» /// sazagan "dragon" /// ayu "bear" /// qoyan " hare" /// br "wolf" /// sicqan"mouse" /// boga "bull", etc.

Names of reptiles, reptiles and insects

(CC, 108–109/129): qurt "worm" /// sazagan "snake" /// yilan "snake" /// cibin "fly" /// bit "flea" /// qandala (

Birds

CC, 109/129–130): cipciq "bird" /// qaraqus "eagle" /// balaban "falcon" /// qarciga "hawk" /// qirqiy "sparrow-hawk" /// turna "crow" /// yabalaq "barn owl (screech-owl)" /// sigirciq "dove" (?), etc.

Grains, dairy products and other products

(CC, 110–130–131): boday, bogday "wheat" /// arpa "barley" /// tuturgan, brinc "rice" /// marjumak (< перс.) «чечевица» /// bircaq «овощи» /// un « мука» /// st « сладкое (некислое) молоко» (lac dulce(lat.), Sir(Pers.) /// yogurt "sour milk (curdled milk, yogurt)" (lac acer (lat.), mast (pers.) /// kptelk "a dish of flour and meat (pelmeni?)" (granum marcengum (lat. .), koptaluk (pers.), etc.

The Missionaries' Book (CC, 111-164/132-235) consists of several very different (including, no doubt, authorship) sections. In addition, this is clearly an unfinished work, and at the time when the copy known to us was made, work on it, apparently, was still ongoing. The book includes several dictionary type lists (but not in alphabetical order), grammar notes, verb conjugation anglers "intelligo" (CC, 129–134/177–180), a section on Cuman (Polovtsian) riddles, several religious texts, and scattered poetic inserts in Italian. It all starts with verbs seskenirmen , elgenirmen "ich irschrake" (translated into Eastern Middle High German) and several other verbs and phrases, for example, yiti bicaq « sharp knife, satov etermen « ich kouflage", yp yp ulu bolur « is wirt y lengir y grossir. “Some of them have been translated not only into Eastern Middle High German, but also into Latin, for example, it redir "d'hunt billit canis latrat", it ugrayadir « d'hunt gru(n)czet", qoy mangradir « ouis balat, kisi incqaydir "d' menche brehtit" (Grnbech, KWb., p. 273, reads this as "der mensche krHcit"), ucamda yatirmen « ich lege uf dem rucke", etc. Then, without any introduction, on pages CC, 117/141 there is a short religious text beginning with the words: bilge tetik kisiler menim szm esitingler eki yolni ayringlar (“Wise and smart people, listen to my words, choose from two roads ...”).

Due to the fragmentation and fragmentation of the texts of the Book of Missionaries, we ( P. Golden) we will not review it page by page (as we did before), but we will select texts and sections that give the best idea of ​​the character of the Book as a whole.

Polovtsian riddles

(CC, 119-120/143-148)

These riddles are a very important source for the study of early Turkic folklore. After all, this is the most ancient, from what we have, documented material on Turkic riddles. As Andreas Tietze noted in his brilliant work, this "early variants of the types of riddles that represent the common heritage of all Turkic-speaking peoples". Some of the riddles have explicit, easily identifiable modern equivalents, such as:

(CC, 119/144): Kecak ut(a)hi kegede semirrir. Ol huun, which Tietze reads as: Kkce ulaxim kgnde semirir. Ol xowun(melon) //« My greenish lamb (on a leash) is getting fat. Melon". Wed with a modern Kazakh riddle: Kk lagim kgende turup semirgen. Qarbiz// “The green lamb grows fat, lying on a leash. Watermelon" or Ottoman (Turkish): Gk oglak kkende bagli. Karpuz// “A greenish (bluish) lamb is tied to a rope. Watermelon".

Cuman: Olturganim oba yer basqanim baqir canaq(Kuun: Tietze reads camek as ck, and Grnbech, KWb., p.73, as canaq, which seems more correct.) Ol zengi. “Where I sit is a hillock (i.e. the back of a horse). Where I step is a copper goblet (i.e. a copper stirrup). Stirrup". Wed with Kazakh riddle: Оtirganim oba zer basqanim baqir sanaq. Uzengi.

(CC, 120/145) Yazda yavli/yawli toqmaq yatir. Ol kirpi-dir. “In an open field (on a plain) lies a thick club. It's a hedgehog." Compare with Khakass: Cazida caglig toqpag cadir. Cilan. “In an open field (on a plain) lies a thick club. Snake". Kazakh: Dalada zabuli toqpaq zatir. Kirpi. “In an open field (on a plain) lies a club covered with a blanket. Hedgehog".

In other cases, close structural and semantic parallels are also clearly visible, for example (CC, 119/143): Aq kmening avzu yoq. Ol yumurtqa“The white vaulted building has no mouth/entrance. It's an egg." Compare with Kazakh: Auzi biten aq otau. Zumirtqa“White yurt – mouth/entrance closed. Egg". Tatar (Qazan Tatar): Ber aq y bar, kerege isegi yuq. Yomirtqa“There is a white house, but there is no front door. Egg".

(CC,120/145) Burunsizbuz teser. Ol qoy bogu. “Noseless (he is without a nose) breaks through the ice. It's sheep dung." Wed from Tatar (Qazan Tatar): Borinsiz cipciq boz tis. Tamci. Bashkir (Baskir): Boronho turgay bo tisr. Tamsi. Kazakh (Qazaq): Murinsiz muz tesedi. Tamsi. “A sparrow without a beak breaks through the ice. A drop".

(Riddle about bird's milk: Sende, mende yoh(you, I don’t have (him); sengir tavda yoh(in the sky-high mountains - there is no (him); u:tlu: tashda yoh(in the beaten path (worked on stone (Roman) roads in cities (stone as a building material) - there is not (it); kypchakda yoh(the Kipchaks (even the Kipchaks!) don’t have (it). Answer: bird’s milk).

Religious texts

At the time of the creation of the Missionaries’ Book, attempts to convert the Cumans to Christianity already had a significant history. The Cuman episcopate (episcopatus Cumanorum) seems to have already existed around 1217–1218. Particularly interested in this appeal, for a number of external and internal political considerations, were the popes and the Hungarian kings. The Dominican and Franciscan monastic orders were involved in the program. The Cuman mission received a new impetus after the appeal in 1227 of one of the Polovtsian leaders named Borc/Bortz , and his son Membrok "a, as well as a significant part of their fellow tribesmen. Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom (Hungary), received the blessing of the pope for a trip to Cumania for this purpose (in order to convert the Polovtsy). This missionary activity did not die out even after the Mongol invasion. By 1287, the Franciscan mission flourished under the auspices of the Genghisides, they had a church and a hospice in Kaffa and their own chapel in the administrative center of Crimea, Solkhat. Yaylaq, wife of Nogai (a rebellious Mongolian temnik, the most powerful ruler of the Black Sea steppes at the end of the 13th century). From the Crimea, missions were sent to the more northern Kipchak-Tatar regions.

The religious texts of the Code contain sermons that could be useful for new converts: the 10 commandments, the Creed, various psalms. Here is a selection for illustration (CC, 132/184–185): Tengrini svgil barca stnde « Love for God Above All» /// Tengrining ati bile anticmegil"N take the name of the Lord in vain» /// ulu kn avurlagil « Remember the Sabbath to keep it holy» /// atangi anangi xormatlagil"Honor your father and mother" /// kisini ltrmegil"Do not kill" /// ogur bolmagil"Do not steal" /// (h)ersek bolmagil « Don't commit adultery» /// yalgan tanixliq bermegil"Do not bear false witness" /// zge kisining nemesi suxlanmagil"Do not covet your neighbor's house," etc.

The commandment "Do not make yourself an idol" strangely missing. But there are a number of others, for example: sevgil sening qarindasin sening kibi « Love your brother as yourself."

(CC,124/167) "Ari Augustus alay aytir: yazuqlu kisi, kim tiler kensi yazuqin aytma(ga), necik Tengri tiler daxi, sening janing aringay, anga kerek trt neme burung qaygirmax kerek kirti kngl bile kensi yazuxung cn... » // « St. Augustine says this: a sinful person who wants to confess his sins, as God pleases, and so that his soul can be cleansed, you need (to do) 4 things. First, you need to repent of all your sins with all your heart.

(CC, 121/158) “Kim egi kngl bile bizim yixvge kelse ulu kn agirlap anga bolgay alti yil bosaq” // “Whoever comes to our church with a good heart and honors the Sabbath is granted forgiveness for 6 years... ".

(CC, 137/186, Psalm Father, gates of paradise...):

"Ave ucmaqning qabagi
Tirilikning agaci
yemising bizge teyirding
Yesusni qacan tuwurdung"

"Father, gates of heaven,
tree of life,
you gave us your fruit,
when he gave birth to Jesus.

(CC, 124/164, "The Parable of the Lepers"): "Kristus alay aytti kelepenlerge: barungiz krngiz papazlarga. Ol szin Kristus bugn aytir barca yazug(li)larga kim kerti kelepenler Tengri alinda” // “Christ said to the lepers: go, show yourself to the priests. These words Christ speaks today to all sinners who are truly lepers before God.”

(CC, 126/171, "Our Father ”): “Atamiz kim kte sen. Algisli bolsun sening xanliging bolsun sening tilemeging necik kim kkte alay yerde. Kndegi tmekimizni bizge bun bergil daxi yazuqlarimizni bizge bosatgil necik biz bosatirbiz bizge yaman etkenlerge" //« Our Father who art in heaven. May your name be hallowed. May my kingdom come. May your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us our daily bread for this day. And forgive us our sins, just as we forgive those who have done evil to us." This can be correlated with the slightly distorted version of the Lord's Prayer preserved in the Hungarian Cumania (CC, XLIV-XLV): "Bezen attamaz kenze kikte, szenleszen szenadon, dsn szenkklon, nicziegen gerde ali kekte, bezen akomazne oknemezne ber bezge pitbtr kngon..." = "Bizim atamiz kim sen kkte, sentlessen ading, dznsen kngln nicekim zerde alay kkte, bizim ekmemizni ber bizge...kngn..."

And finally, the Creed (CC, 148/211–212): “Inanirmen barcaga erkli bir ata Tengrige kkni yerni barca krnr krnmezni yaratti dey. Dagi bir beyimiz Yesus Kristusga barca zamanlardan burun atadan tuwgan turur (Kuun: ata tuuptrur = ata towupturur), Tengri Tengriden, yarix yarixtan, cin Tengri (God) cin Tengriden, etilmey ataga tzdes tuwupturur, andan ulam bar barca bolgan-turur kim biz azamlar cn dagin bizim ongimiz kkden enip ari tindan ulam erdeng ana Maryamdan ten alip kisi bolup-turur...” // “I believe in one God the Father almighty, who created heaven and earth, and all things, visible and invisible, and in the One Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, who was born from the Father before all time, God from God, Light from Light, uncreated, born from the same essence as the Father, through You everything was created, who is for us, people, and our salvation descended from heaven and through the Holy Spirit and from the Virgin Mary took on flesh and became a man...”.

There are many other aspects of SS for further study. However, being limited in space, here we will only touch on some of them.

Borrowed words

The vocabulary of international trade, which has developed in the eastern Mediterranean and in the west of Eurasia, is widely represented in the SS. This is especially true of the trilingual Translator's Book. The terms of this dictionary, as we have already seen, are mostly of Persian and Arabic origin, and many of them, in turn, were previously borrowed by these languages ​​from Indian and Greek. And judging by the SS, one might get the impression that foreign words have penetrated into all spheres of life of the Cumans (Polovtsians). Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the dictionary of the Cumans - city dwellers - was saturated with such terms to a much greater extent than the dictionary of their steppe compatriots.

The multi-ethnic composition of the population of the cities of Crimea undoubtedly added "foreign" elements to the local speech of the Cumans. In addition, the compilers of the SS, given their own origins, tended to use just such words, and therefore included these elements of the lingua franca in their vocabulary.

Greek elements

Bapas, papas, papaz "priest"< есть также в караимском (Qaraim), армяно-куманском (Armeno-Coman), мамлюко-кыпчакском (Mamluk Qipcaq), балкарском (Balqar) и турецком (Ottoman). Скорее всего, в язык куманов это слово попало непосредственно из греческого, вероятно, благодаря православным миссионерам и торговцам, бывавшим в Крыму.

Fanar "lantern, lamp"< ср. также с османским (турецким) fener. Также есть в русском (фонарь), языке казанских татар и карачаево-балкарском.

K(i)lisia "church"< ср. с караимским kilise, карачаево-балкарским klisa, османским (турецким) kilise.

Limen "port"< ср. с османским liman.

Mangdan "parsley"< >Arab. maqd-nis/baqd-nis, cf. also with Ottoman maydanoz > modern Greek. (Mod. Gr.)

Marul "Lettuce"< < лат. amarula (lactuca), ср. с османским marul, мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluq Qipcaq) marul.

Timean "incense, incense"< возможно благодаря восточнослав. timian (тимьян).

Trapes "table".

East Slavic loanwords

Izba "room, ward" (CC, 100/119 camera (lat.), hujra (pers.))< изба «дом, баня»

Ovus "rye"< древнерус. ov’s, рус. «овёс» ср. с караимским uvus.

Pec "stove"< печь, ср. с караим. pec.

There are many other, later, borrowings from modern Russian in the Turkic languages.

Samala "resin"< смола, ср. с мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluk Qipcaq) samala, samla, salama.

Salam "straw"< soloma, сравни с мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluk Qipcaq) salam, kk salam – saman, есть также в караимском, карачаево-балкарском, в языке казанских татар и в венгерском – szalma. Связь этого слова с исконно тюркским saman «солома» неясна.

Some words are problematic, for example terem "chapel, chapel (tent, biblical tabernacle)", and in Old Russian terem "high house, courtyard (court), dome, watchtower"; in Russian "a room, a special form of a building" - Greek. "room". But in Sagay Turkic there is trb "yurt - yurt", cf. from mong. terme "wall". Also, bulov “some kind of weapon, probably a club (compare with the Mamluk-Kypchak (Mamluk Qipcaq) bulav, bula’u) possibly comes from the East Slavic - mace, although it is also possible that the borrowing happened in the opposite direction.

Borrowings from Mongolian

Codex (CC) contains a number of words borrowed from Mongolian. Considering the historical contacts between the Turkic and Mongolian peoples, not to mention the controversial issue of the Altaic family (languages), the dating and origin of these words is very problematic. In addition, the task is complicated by the fact that even before the onset of the 13th century, many Mongol-speaking or Mongol- and Turkic-speaking tribes (Mongolian tribes that underwent Turkization) joined the Kuman-Kypchak confederation. Other Mongol influences are connected, of course, with the era of Chinggisid hegemony. There are many layers reflecting the Cuman-Kypchak-Mongolian linguistic interaction, some of the most ancient of them are not at all easy to identify. A comprehensive study of these words was done by N.N. Poppe (Poppe). Here is just a small selection of the most obvious of them:

(here you can see a comparison table of some modern Turkish and Mongolian words).

Among the controversial words, one can note the Cuman word bagatur , pers. Bahadur, mong. bagatur"hero", which Poppe thinks is originally Mongolian. Clauson, however, believes that this is a very ancient Inner Asian cultural word dating back to the language of the Huns (Hsiung-nu). Kumanskoye qarav, qarov "compensation, reward, retribution" (CC, 43/46 premium (lat.), jaza (pers.) and qarav berrmen "I forgive, release from (obligation)"; (retribuo (lat.), miamorzm (pers.), cf. Karaite qaruv"answer", Mong. qarigu, xarigu"response, return, retribution, retribution." Kumanskoye tepsi "plate, dish" (in many Turkic dialects), Mong. tebsi"large oblong plate, wooden plate, tray, feeder"< китайск. tieh-tzu, Middle Chinese dep tsi. The origin of the word is also unclear (CC, 90/105) bogavul/bogawul "clerk, servant in court" placerius, tatawul , compare with an official position in the state of the Ilkhans (Iran) bukawul/buqawul "perhaps the chief treasurer."

Arabic elements

Arabic elements, as we have seen, are well represented in all sociolinguistic categories of the Interpretor's Book, as well as in the Code as a whole. This is one of the consequences of the strong Muslim political, commercial, cultural and religious influence in the Crimea. The fact that the use of these words was not limited to the Muslim population of the region is evidenced by their presence in the Karaite and Armenian-Cuman languages, despite all religious differences. Particular attention in this work is paid to Arabic words that entered the Cuman language through Persian mediation. Here are some examples: alam "banner"< араб. ‘alam, album "of course, definitely"< араб. albatta, Azam " Human"< adam, seriat " judge"< аrab. sar‘iyyah"Islamic law, law". A similar use of specific Muslim terms in the broader category is also seen in " Interpretation of the Polovtsian language» (Tolkovanie jazyka poloveckogo) (XIII century? See below): alkoran « law"< al-qur’an (Коран), elfokaz "teachers and great interpreters (tolkovnici)" (< al-fuquha"lawyers specializing in religious law"). Xukm « judgment, decision< араб. hukm), hakim, hakim « doctor" (< аrab. hakim), aziz, haziz « rare, valuable, pilgrimage, holy, sacred" (< араб. ‘Aziz), Nur « light" (< араб. Nur), Safar " journey" (< араб. Safar), seir « poet" (< араб. sir"poetry", sa'ir"poet"), tafariq (CC, 132/184, tafsanyt)"difference, distinction"< (араб. tafriq, pl. tafariq"separation, distinction").

Persian elements

The Persian language, which played an important role (lingua franca) in interethnic communication in the Muslim East, is also present in CC. In the previous text, many of them have already been indicated, so only a brief selection is given here: Daru " medicine" (< перс. Daru), drust "true, faithful" (< перс. drust, durust), bazar "bazaar, market" (< перс. bazar), bazargan "merchant, merchant"< (перс. bazargan), hergiz, herkiz "never" (< перс. hargiz"always, all the time") jahan, jehan "world, universe" (< перс. jahan, jihan), jigar " liver" (< перс. jigar), piyala "goblet, glass" (< перс. piyala) etc.

Jewish, Syriac (Syriac) and other elements

As noted earlier, the Cuman sabat kn "Sabbath" ultimately comes from the Hebrew Saturday, however, most likely through Khazar mediation. Name (CC, 143/202) Hawa/Hava"Eve" in its Hebrew form (Hava) is used more often than the more expected Eva. Interestingly, the word Messiah ("Messiah" - Anointed One) appears in its Syriac (Syriac) form, or in a form derived from it: (CC, 138/189) misixa < сир. Mesiha.

There are also a number of words of uncertain origin. Among them (CC, 160/222) kesene "tomb mound", preserved in Karachai (and Balkar): k‘esene, kesene"cemetery, tomb" Ligeti suggests his Caucasian origin, but provides no other evidence. Zaionczkowski agrees with Pelliot's version of the older, Persian etymology: kasana"little house". But it is not entirely clear how the Cuman form could have come from the Persian.

The authors of the Missionaries' Book created or developed a specific Christian vocabulary. Certain religious terms were, of course, known to the Cumans, given their Inner Asian heritage and long contact with various religions.

Yes, the words tamu, tamuq, tamux "a d" ucmaq "rai", borrowed from the Sogd language ( Tamw, ‘wstmg) or some other Iranian language were already well known and understood, so there was no need for a special Christian form. These and some other ancient Turkic words received a special Christian shade of meaning, for example bitik (< biti- «писать» < средне-китайск. piet“a brush (apparently, with which hieroglyphs were written)”, “something written, a book” now also meant “Book (with a capital letter)”, i.e. Bible, Holy Scripture. Other Christian terms have been translated into Turkic literally, such as Bey(imiz) Tengri "Dominus Deus (Almighty God)", clk "Trinity" ari tin " Holy Spirit", kktegi xanliq « Heavenly Kingdom”, etc. It is interesting how the (not originally Cuman) use of the word yixv (< iduq ev « holy, sacred house") "church" (present in Karaite as yeg'v"church") reveals a semantic parallel in Hungarian egyhaz"church", lit. "holy house"). The concept of “savior” was literally translated into Turkic: (CC, 122/160) “Yesus Christus bitik tilince, tatarca qutqardaci, ol kertirir barca elni qutqardaci” // “Jesus Christ, in the language of the Bible, in Tatar - qutqardaci (Savior) which means the Savior of all people.

The Cuman calendar (see above) shows the absence of both Christian influence and the influence of the Sino-Turkic 12-year animal cycle. This archaic system seems to be typical of the northern part of the Turkic world, from which the Kypchaks originate.

Another example of the manifestation of a more ancient Turkic culture can be considered the word qam "sorceress"< qam"shaman, sorcerer, soothsayer, magician."

Cuman documents, modern CC

Several Kypchak-Arabic grammars/dictionaries (which sometimes contain other languages) appeared in the lands of the Mamluks in the 14th-15th centuries. Similar in content to CC, although they differ from it in format:

• Kitab al-Idrak li'l-Lisan al-Atrak (1313 or 1320), written by Abu Hayyan" (1286-1344);
• Kitab Majmu‘ Tarjuman Turki wa ‘Ajami wa Mugali wa Farsi (now dated 1343);
• Kitab Bulgat al-Mustaq fi Lugat at-Turk wa'l-Qifjaq by Jalal ad-Din Abu Muhammad 'Abdallah at-Turki (which can be dated no earlier than the end of the 14th century and certainly no later than the middle of the 15th century);
• At-Tuhfah az-Zakiyyah fi'l-lugat at-Turkiyyah by an unknown author (written before 1425)
• Al-Qawanun al-Kulliyyah li-Dabt al-Lugat at-Turkiyyah, written in Egypt during the Timur era (second half of the 14th century).

To this list, probably, one can add the so far only partially published 6-language Rasulid Hexaglot(dating from 1360), which contains dictionaries for Arabic, Persian, two Turkic dialects (one of which is definitely Oghuz and the other is regarded as a Kipchak or a mixed Eastern Oghuz-Kipchak dialect), Greek, Armenian and Mongolian.

There are also fragments of Cuman-Russian dictionaries, such as: "Se Tatar language", which was discovered in the Novgorod annals of the 15th century * and "Interpretation of the Polovtsian language", found in the Cheti-Minei of the 16th century**. Although their creation undoubtedly belongs to an earlier period.

* The Russian-Tatar dictionary "Se Tatar language", containing 27 words, 6 phrases and 18 numerals, is part of a collection of the 15th-16th centuries, which once belonged to the library of St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.

** In the manuscript of the "Cheti-Minei" of 1559, which belonged to Metropolitan Macarius, on the back of 603 sheets there is a text called "Interpretation of the Polovtsian language. The first in Polovtsian, and later in Russian ”and containing 17 words.

Finally, it should be said about the translation into Kypchak of the poem by Saadi Gulistan, made by Sayf Sarai in Cairo in 793/1390-1391.

Meaning of KYPCHAK LANGUAGE in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB

KYPCHAK LANGUAGE

(Kuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Polovtsians, or Cumans, Kypchaks. Refers to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak group). The largest monument of the Kypchak language is "Codex Cumanicus" (13th century, published in 1828).

TSB. Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB. 2003

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is KYPCHAK LANGUAGE in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• KYPCHAK LANGUAGE
  (Cuman or Polovtsian), the language of the Cumans, or Cumans, Kypchaks. Refers to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak group). The largest monument of the Kypchak language - "Codex …
• KYPCHAK LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  language (Cuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Polovtsians, or Cumans, Kypchaks, the main core of the union of tribes that appeared in Eastern Europe in ...
• LANGUAGE in the Wiki Quote:
  Data: 2008-10-12 Time: 10:20:50 * Language is also important because we can use it to hide our …
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of thieves' jargon:
  - investigator, operative ...
• LANGUAGE in Miller's Dream Book, dream book and interpretation of dreams:
  If in a dream you see your own language, it means that soon your acquaintances will turn away from you. If in a dream you see ...
• LANGUAGE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing the opportunity ...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing ...
• LANGUAGE
  OFFICIAL - see OFFICIAL LANGUAGE...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  STATE - see STATE LANGUAGE ...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedia of Biology:
  , an organ in the oral cavity of vertebrates that performs the functions of transportation and taste analysis of food. The structure of the tongue reflects the specifics of animal nutrition. At…
• LANGUAGE in the Concise Church Slavonic Dictionary:
  , tongues 1) people, tribe; 2) language, ...
• LANGUAGE in the Bible Encyclopedia of Nicephorus:
  like speech or adverb. "The whole earth had one language and one dialect," says the chronicler (Genesis 11:1-9). The legend of one...
• LANGUAGE in the Lexicon of Sex:
  multifunctional organ located in the oral cavity; pronounced erogenous zone of both sexes. With the help of Ya, orogenital contacts of the most diverse ...
• LANGUAGE in Medical terms:
  (lingua, pna, bna, jna) a muscular organ covered with a mucous membrane located in the oral cavity; participates in chewing, articulation, contains taste buds; …
• LANGUAGE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  ..1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ...
• LANGUAGE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking, it is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  2, -a, pl. -i, -ov, m. 1. A historically established system of sound ^ vocabulary and grammatical means, objectifying the work of thinking and being ...
• LANGUAGE
  MACHINE LANGUAGE, see Machine language ...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  LANGUAGE, natural language, the most important means of human communication. I. is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  LANGUAGE (anat.), in terrestrial vertebrates and humans, a muscular outgrowth (in fish, a fold of mucous membrane) at the bottom of the oral cavity. Participates in …
• KYPCHAK in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  KYPCHAK LANGUAGE (Cuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Cumans, or Kumans, Kypchaks. Refers to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak gr.). The largest monument of K. Ya. - "Codex ...
• LANGUAGE
  languages"to, languages", language", language"in, language", language"m, language", language"in, language"m, language"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  languages"to, languages", language", language"in, language", language"m, languages"k, languages", language"m, language"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  - the main object of study of linguistics. Under I., first of all, they mean natures. human self (in opposition to artificial languages ​​and ...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  1) The system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serving as the most important means of communication between people. Being…
• LANGUAGE in the Popular explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language.
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary for solving and compiling scanwords:
  "My Enemy" in...

XIII-XIV centuries - the time of further development of the Kazakh language and the approximation of literary languages ​​to the folk. The Mongolian language was not widely used in Kazakhstan, and already under Monk and Batu Khan, all state and official documents were written in Turkic languages. Among the folk dialects, the Kypchak (Old Kazakh) language continues to dominate, consisting of several dialects. In addition, in the settled regions of the Crimea and South Kazakhstan, the languages ​​of the Eastern Turkic groups, Oguz and Uigur-Karlyk, were preserved, the Khazar and Sogdian languages ​​gradually fell into disuse.
Significant changes are taking place in literary languages. The unified literary Turkic language of the 11th-12th centuries, "Turks", is divided into two variants - Karlyk-Uigur and Oguz-Kypchak. The first one is spreading in the possessions of the Shagatai and therefore is sometimes called the "Shagatai" language by scientists. Almost all Turkic-language literary works of this period of Maverannahr and Moghulistan were written in this language. The Oguz-Kypchak literary language develops simultaneously in two centers - Ulug Ulus and Egypt, in which the Kipchak nobility - the Mamluks - occupied a dominant position. In Ulug Ulus, this language was formed in the Crimea and Khorezm, where the Kypchak and Oguz languages ​​were equally common, due to which a synthetic literary dialect arose.
Writing. Prior to the adoption of Islam as the state religion, two writing systems were mainly used in Kazakhstan - the traditional runic script and the Uighur alphabet brought by the Mongols. Until the beginning of the XIV century. all state and official documents were written in the Uighur script. However, from the beginning of the XIV century. the Arabic alphabet is becoming more and more widespread.
At the same time, it was significantly changed and adapted to the norms of Turkic speech. The centers of distribution of Arabic writing in Ulug Ulus were Bulgar and Khorezm, where Islam took firm roots as early as the 10th-11th centuries. In separate centers of the Ulug Ulus, where there were large Christian communities, there were attempts to adapt the Kypchak language to the Latin script, but it was not widely used. The most striking monument of the Kypchak language in the XIII century. is the "Code Cumanicus" (Book of the Cumans, i.e. Kypchaks). The manuscript was discovered in the library of Petrarch and is now kept in Venice, in the church of St. Mark. The "Code" was written in 1303 in the Crimea, so the language of this book has a strong Oghuz influence of the South Crimean Turkic dialect.
The book consists of two main parts. The first contains a Latin-Persian-Kypchak dictionary, the second - a Kypchak-German-Latin dictionary, a brief essay on grammar, Christian religious texts in the Kypchak language. To convey the Kypchak language, the compilers used the Latin script.
The main purpose of the "Code" was practical: for the study of the Kypchak language by missionaries and the acquaintance of the population of the Ulug Ulus with Christianity. The book contains the texts of the main prayers in Kypchak, notes for chants. At the same time, the "Code" brought to us a large number of folk proverbs and riddles, surprisingly similar to modern Kazakh ones.
Kypchak dictionaries. The earliest monument of the Kypchak language is the Arabic-Kypchak dictionary "Terjuman Turki wa Arabi", written in 1245 in Arabic script in Egypt. Despite the name, this work included, in addition to the Arabic-Kypchak, Mongolian-Persian and Arab-Mongolian dictionaries. In total, the dictionary contains about 2.5 thousand words.
Of purely practical importance was the work of Asir Ad-Din Abu Hayyan Al-Garnati (Andalusian) "Kitap al-Idrak-li-Lisan al-atrak" (Explanatory book on the Turkic language). Its author was a native of African Berbers and lived in the cultural center of Arab Spain - Grenada. At the end of the XIII century. Al-Garnati moved to Cairo, where he taught philology in a madrasah. Here he wrote several books on grammar, phonetics and vocabulary of the Kypchak language. Only one of his works, written in 1312, has come down to us.
The work of Jamal ad-Din Muhammad Abdullah at-Turki "Kitap bulugat al-Mushtak fi lugat at-turk val-kypshak" (A book written for those wishing to study the Turkic and Kypchak languages ​​well) was also purely practical. A feature of this work is that in a brief preface to the dictionary, the author gives a list of works he used that have not reached us. Among them is the book "Al-Anwar al-Mudia" (Shine of Light) by Ala ad-Din Beylik Al-Kypchaki, written in the 14th century. in Syria.
In addition, many other works devoted to the study of the Kypchak language are known. So, in Egypt in the XIV century. The work "Kitab at-tukhfa az-zakiya fi lugat at-turkiya" (A special gift written about the Turkic language) was written. Here at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the book "Ak kavanin al-kulliya li-dabt al-lugat al-turkiya" (Complete collection written for students of the Turkic language) was written, which consisted of two parts - grammar and vocabulary.

Known in several phonetic variants ( kypchak, kyfchak, kyvchak, kypshak, kypchakh, hypchakh, hybchakh, khpchakh, khbchakh, in the traditional inaccurate Russian transcription - Kipchak) has at least three basic meanings.

Firstly, this is one of the oldest tribal names, common among many modern Turkic ethnic groups. An outstanding representative of this kind among the Kazakhs was the legendary batyr Koblandy, who belonged to the Kara-Kipchaks.

Secondly, the scientific ethnonymic term Kypchak is used for a generalized designation of peoples and, mainly, languages ​​that are part of the Kypchak subgroup of Turkic languages.

The Kypchak languages, which form several divisions, are part of the Turkic subgroup of the Altaic linguistic community, or the Altaic family of languages. This family also includes Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Japanese and Korean. Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages ​​form one subgroup (Altaic languages ​​proper) and Japanese and Korean form another.

Kypchak-Polovtsian languages

Armenian-Kypchak

Karaite

Karachay-Balkar

Crimean Tatar (Kypchak dialects) - Crimea; Dobruja, Romania; Türkiye

Krymchaksky

Kuman (Polovtsian, Kypchak-Polovtsian)

Kumyk

Tatar

Urum (Kypchak dialects)

Kazakh

Karakalpak

Crimean Tatar (Nogai dialect)

Nogai
Kyrgyz-Kypchak languages

Altaic

Kyrgyz
Kypchak-Bulgar languages

Bashkir

Tatar (Volga region, Astrakhan, Siberia, Kazakhstan)
Thirdly, historical science means under the Kypchaks a powerful association of Turkic tribes, which was headed by the Kypchaks and which in the middle of the 10th century ousted the tribal union led by the Pechenegs from South-Eastern Europe. The unification of the Kypchaks turned out to be so strong that the vast territory controlled by them was called Desht-i-Kypchak - the Polovtsian steppe. The power of the association was recognized by the broadest masses of people. Indicative in this sense is the riddle from the “Codex Cumanicus” about bird's milk: Sende, mende yoh, sengir tavda yoh, yatlya tashda yoh, kypchakda yoh"Neither you nor I have it, neither in the sky-high mountains, nor in beaten stones, nor among the Kypchaks."

The Kypchak union of tribes left an indelible mark on the ethnogenesis, political, economic, cultural life of the peoples of Europe, Transcaucasia and Northeast Africa, influenced the formation and development of the spiritual values ​​of the region, which is recorded by numerous monuments of material culture and writing. The rich cultural heritage of the Kypchaks and related ethnic groups and states is of great interest to a wide range of researchers and lovers of antiquity. Scientific discussions around many issues do not stop, including the content of the scientific concept itself. Kypchaks and its equivalents - Cumans, Cumans, Kuns, Khons, around the mysteries of the rapid appearance of the Kypchaks in the political arena of Eurasia, the triumphal march for the West, the rapid decline of Desht-i-Kypchak, the unexpected new flourishing in the lands of ancient Egypt and, as it seemed, the complete dissolution in the multi-ethnic South-Eastern and Central Europe, Africa and others regions.

In the post-Soviet period, when a simplified publication procedure allowed pseudo-scientific publications to absorb the information space and push fundamental science to the margins of public opinion, opuses that interpret the problems of Kypchak studies were extremely arbitrary. Some authors have gone so far as to attribute to the Kypchaks the gigantic statues of Easter Island, the writing of ancient Sumer, the Gothic of Western Europe, and many other far from Turkic phenomena. The absurdity of such statements is obvious, but, nevertheless, in Kazakhstan, such opuses turned out to be included in the lists of scientific literature recommended for use in history lessons at school.

At the same time, the works of well-known scientists of the former USSR, Turkey, Western Europe, the USA, who have a deep knowledge of the subject and operate with scientific methods of research, discovering more and more invaluable sources, remain the property of quiet, inconspicuous armchair science. Although, in terms of their heuristic and persuasiveness, they should rightly arouse the admiration of an educated public. Unfortunately, these works did not become the property of the masses, and the works of many of the most authoritative researchers who passed away during the years of stagnation, perestroika and the subsequent crisis remained in their original manuscript form, such as, for example, the fundamental comparative dictionary of written monuments of the Kypchak-Oghuz language of the Golden Horde Emir Najip (transferred by the widow of the deceased from Moscow to the Institute of Linguistics of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan).

Kypchak scholars today face the following fundamental research questions.

I. Kypchaks and the Golden Horde. What was the Kipchak union of tribes, how was it formed and what tribes were included in it? What are the actual historical and geographical boundaries of Desht-i-Kipchak? What is the relation of the modern Kazakhs, Crimean Tatars, Karaites, Krymchaks, Karachays, Balkars, Kumyks, Tatars and other peoples to the medieval Kipchaks of the Polovtsian steppe?

II. Were the Genghisides of the Golden Horde really a model of religious tolerance? The state of affairs with religion and interfaith relations in Desht-i-Kypchak. What religions did the Kypchaks and their allies profess? When and which branches of the Kypchaks converted to Islam? Among which branches of the Kipchaks and their allies did Christianity spread? How did the newly adopted religious cults reflect the old pagan beliefs, their traces in the language of Islamic and Christian written monuments? When and on what territory did the “Polovtsian bishopric” exist, or were there several such bishoprics - at different times and in different places? From the point of view of ethnogenesis, who are the Karaites and Krymchaks - Jews, Khazars or Kypchaks?

III. Kipchaks and Jews. Orthodox Jews and Jews of the Karaites in the Khazar state. Krymchaks (Crimean Jews) and Karaites as the heirs of these two branches of Judaism. The influence of the spiritual culture of the Jews on the development of the cultural values ​​of the Kypchaks. The Jewish Torah and Tsrd - law, law, court, code of laws among the Kypchaks. The Bible in the spiritual life of various branches of the Kypchaks. Kypchak translations of biblical texts as a reflection of three arc principles - Judaism, Tengrism and Islam as a religion derived from Judaism.

IV. Where, by whom and when was the famous “Codex Cumanicus” compiled? What Turkic dialects are reflected in it? Did the Kypchaks of that time have their own writing and literature, or brilliant translations of Christian texts - their only literary experience? Were there any Kipchaks among the missionaries? Or were these translations made not by the Kypchaks, but by the Italians or Germans who labored among them, who studied the Kypchak language so well as to impeccably translate the Holy Letter, the Apostolic Creed, canons and hymns into it?

V. Kipchaks and peoples of the Caucasus. Do the Kypchaks have any relation to the runic monuments of the Caucasus? Were the Kypchaks assimilated to the state ethnic groups at a time when their tumens (tens of thousands of soldiers) were hired for military service by Georgian and other rulers? The Turkic-speaking Gurjis of Crimea, who founded the Urum village of Gurji in the Sea of ​​Azov in 1779 - who are they? What is the further historical fate of the Kypchaks, who settled permanently in Armenia, adopted a religion, founded a village Khpchah and built a monastery there Khpchaghvank in 1206? How did entire colonies of Kypchakophone Armenians arise in the Crimea, Moldova and Wallachia, in Ukraine and Poland? Were there among them the descendants of the Kipchaks, who adopted Christianity of the Armenian-Gregorian persuasion in Armenia or in other Armenian colonies? Why did the Armenians-Kypchakophones recognize these colonies as native ( Bizim Tilimiz“our language”) is the Kypchak language, not Armenian, although they called themselves ermeni- Armenians? Why the name khypchah tili“Kypchak language” in monuments of religious content is often denoted by the term Tatar“in Tatar”, “in the Tatar language”? Why are there many elements of Oguz (Turkish) phonetics in translated monuments? What was the “rearmenization” of the Kipchakophone Armenians on the eve of the union of the Lvov Armenians with the Roman Catholic Church at the beginning of the 17th century, and what are the historical consequences of this union? Were there Armenians evicted in 1778-1779? from the Crimea to the Don (Rostov-on-Don) Kipchak-speaking?

VI. Kipchaks in the Crimea. The role of the Kipchaks, Nogais, Oguzes and Turks in the ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars and other peoples of the Crimea. Did a part of the Crimean Greeks really adopt the Kypchak language of the local majority, or did a part of the Kypchaks convert to Byzantine Christianity? What is the role of Esir slaves in the formation of the Urum ethnos - Turkic-speaking Greeks as a special nationality? What historical information is hidden in the message: “On the same day, the servant of God Almalchu, the son of Samak, died, alas, a young man stabbed to death by the Cossacks,” attributed on May 17, 1308 in a Greek synaxar from the Crimean city of Sugdei (Sudak)? Can this message be considered the first mention of the ethnonym Kazakhs?

VII. Kipchaks of the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt. The role of the Kypchaks in the history of this state. Did Sultan Baibars really come from the Kazakh steppe? To what extent did the mixed Oguz-Kypchak (Kypchak-Oguz) literary language of the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt reflect the living speech of the people? What is common between the language of the Kipchaks of Mamluk Egypt and the Kazakh language, as well as other Turkic languages? What is the contribution of the Oghuz to the Turks - the literary language that united the Turks until the middle of the 19th century?

VIII. Kypchaks in Hungary. Were there Cumans in Hungary before the Mongol invasion? If the 40,000-strong Polovtsian army, after the perfidious murder of Khan Kotyan, “left for the Balkans, sweeping away everything in its path,” then what kind of Kuns-Kumans remained in Hungary and where did this huge army dissolve? What were ethnically the historical regions of Hungary Lesser and Greater Cumania? What is the cultural heritage of the Kuns of Hungary and what are the peculiarities of their language?

IX. Kypchaks-Kumans-Polovtsy and Kievan Rus. Traces of the Polovtsian language in the literary heritage of Kievan Rus and in modern East Slavic languages. Did numerous representatives of the Oguz and Kypchak tribes disappear without a trace among the Rus of the Dnieper region? Badzhanaks-Pechenegs, Berendeys, Bouts (Moguts), Kaepichis, Kovuis, Torks, Turpeys, Black Klobuks, Anjoglus, Burdzhoglus, Burns, Burls, Dzhuzans, Fools, Tebichis, Iets, Itlari, Itylyi, Kangaroglus, Kanugols, Karabaroglys, Kulobs, unlock, saxia, targolov, tortoby, toksoby, street, uglichi and others. Isn't it hidden in the name Gzak Burnovich modern ethnonym Kazakhs?