Neutron (elementary particle)

This article was written by Vladimir Gorunovich for the Wikiknowledge website, placed on this site in order to protect information from vandals, and then supplemented on this site.

The field theory of elementary particles, operating within the framework of SCIENCE, is based on a foundation proven by PHYSICS:

• Classical electrodynamics,
• Quantum mechanics
• Conservation laws are fundamental laws of physics.

Using elementary particles that do not exist in nature, inventing fundamental interactions that do not exist in nature, or replacing interactions existing in nature with fabulous ones, ignoring the laws of nature, engaging in mathematical manipulations with them (creating the appearance of science) - this is the lot of FAIRY TALES passed off as science. As a result, physics slipped into the world of mathematical fairy tales.

1 Neutron radius
2 Magnetic moment of the neutron
3 Electric field of a neutron
4 Neutron rest mass
5 Neutron lifetime
6 New physics: Neutron (elementary particle) - summary

Neutron - elementary particle quantum number L=3/2 (spin = 1/2) - baryon group, proton subgroup, electric charge +0 (systematization according to the field theory of elementary particles).

According to the field theory of elementary particles (a theory built on a scientific foundation and the only one that received the correct spectrum of all elementary particles), the neutron consists of a rotating polarized variable electro magnetic field with a constant component. All the unfounded statements of the Standard Model that the neutron supposedly consists of quarks have nothing to do with reality. - Physics has experimentally proven that the neutron has electromagnetic fields (the zero value of the total electric charge does not mean the absence of a dipole electric field, which even the Standard Model was indirectly forced to admit by introducing electric charges on the elements of the neutron structure), and also a gravitational field. Physics brilliantly guessed that elementary particles not only have, but consist of, electromagnetic fields 100 years ago, but it was not possible to construct a theory until 2010. Now, in 2015, a theory of gravity of elementary particles also appeared, which established the electromagnetic nature of gravity and obtained the equations of the gravitational field of elementary particles, different from the equations of gravity, on the basis of which more than one mathematical fairy tale in physics was built.

Structure of the electromagnetic field of a neutron (E-constant electric field, H-constant magnetic field, yellow marked alternating electromagnetic field).

Energy balance (percentage of total internal energy):

• constant electric field (E) - 0.18%,
• constant magnetic field (H) - 4.04%,
• alternating electromagnetic field - 95.78%.

Despite zero electric charge, the neutron has a dipole electric field.

1 Neutron radius

The field theory of elementary particles defines the radius (r) of an elementary particle as the distance from the center to the point at which the maximum mass density is achieved.

For a neutron it will be 3.3518 ∙10 -16 m. To this we must add the thickness of the electromagnetic field layer 1.0978 ∙10 -16 m.

Then the result will be 4.4496 ∙10 -16 m. Thus, the outer boundary of the neutron should be located at a distance of more than 4.4496 ∙10 -16 m from the center. The resulting value is almost equal to the radius of the proton and this is not surprising. The radius of an elementary particle is determined by the quantum number L and the value of the rest mass. Both particles have the same set of quantum numbers L and M L , and their rest masses differ slightly.

2 Magnetic moment of the neutron

In contrast to quantum theory, the field theory of elementary particles states that the magnetic fields of elementary particles are not created by the spin rotation of electric charges, but exist simultaneously with a constant electric field as a constant component of the electromagnetic field. Therefore, all elementary particles with quantum number L>0 have magnetic fields.

The field theory of elementary particles does not consider the magnetic moment of the neutron anomalous - its value is determined by a set of quantum numbers to the extent that quantum mechanics works in an elementary particle.

So the magnetic moment of a neutron is created by a current:

• (0) with magnetic moment -1 eħ/m 0n c

3 Electric field of a neutron

Despite the zero electric charge, according to the field theory of elementary particles, the neutron must have a constant electric field. The electromagnetic field that makes up the neutron has a constant component, and therefore the neutron must have a constant magnetic field and a constant electric field. Since the electric charge is zero, the constant electric field will be dipole. That is, the neutron must have a constant electric field similar to the field of two distributed parallel electric charges equal in magnitude and opposite sign. At large distances, the electric field of a neutron will be practically imperceptible due to the mutual compensation of the fields of both charge signs. But at distances on the order of the neutron radius, this field will have a significant impact on interactions with other elementary particles of similar sizes. This primarily concerns the interaction of neutron with proton and neutron with neutron in atomic nuclei. For the neutron-neutron interaction, these will be repulsive forces for the same direction of spins and attractive forces for the opposite direction of spins. For the neutron-proton interaction, the sign of the force depends not only on the orientation of the spins, but also on the displacement between the planes of rotation of the electromagnetic fields of the neutron and proton.
So, the neutron must have a dipole electric field of two distributed parallel symmetrical ring electric charges (+0.75e and -0.75e), average radius , located at a distance

The electric dipole moment of a neutron (according to the field theory of elementary particles) is equal to:

where ħ is Planck's constant, L is the main quantum number in the field theory of elementary particles, e is the elementary electric charge, m 0 is the rest mass of the neutron, m 0~ is the rest mass of the neutron contained in an alternating electromagnetic field, c is the speed of light, P is the vector of the electric dipole moment (perpendicular to the neutron plane, passes through the center of the particle and is directed towards the positive electric charge), s is the average distance between charges, r e is the electric radius of the elementary particle.

As you can see, the electric charges are close in magnitude to the charges of the supposed quarks (+2/3e=+0.666e and -2/3e=-0.666e) in the neutron, but unlike quarks, electromagnetic fields exist in nature, and have a similar structure to the constant Any neutral elementary particle has an electric field, regardless of the magnitude of the spin and... .

The potential of the electric dipole field of a neutron at point (A) (in the near zone 10s > r > s approximately), in the SI system is equal to:

where θ is the angle between the dipole moment vector P and direction to observation point A, r 0 - normalizing parameter equal to r 0 =0.8568Lħ/(m 0~ c), ε 0 - electric constant, r - distance from the axis (rotation of the alternating electromagnetic field) of an elementary particle to observation point A, h - distance from the plane of the particle (passing through its center) to observation point A, h e - average height location of the electric charge in a neutral elementary particle (equal to 0.5s), |...| - number module, P n - vector magnitude P n. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system.)

The strength E of the electric dipole field of a neutron (in the near zone 10s > r > s approximately), in the SI system is equal to:

Where n=r/|r| - unit vector from the center of the dipole in the direction of the observation point (A), the dot (∙) denotes the scalar product, vectors are highlighted in bold. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system.)

Components of the electric dipole field strength of the neutron (in the near zone 10s>r>s approximately) longitudinal (| |) (along the radius vector drawn from the dipole to this point) and transverse (_|_) in the SI system:

Where θ is the angle between the direction of the dipole moment vector P n and the radius vector to the observation point (there is no factor in the SGS system).

The third component of the electric field strength is orthogonal to the plane in which the dipole moment vector lies P n neutron and radius vector, - is always equal to zero.

The potential energy U of the interaction of the electric dipole field of a neutron (n) with the electric dipole field of another neutral elementary particle (2) at point (A) in the far zone (r>>s), in the SI system is equal to:

where θ n2 is the angle between the vectors of dipole electric moments P n and P 2, θ n - angle between the vector of the dipole electric moment P n and vector r, θ 2 - angle between the vector of the dipole electric moment P 2 and vector r, r- vector from the center of the dipole electric moment p n to the center of the dipole electric moment p 2 (to observation point A). (There is no multiplier in the GHS system)

The normalizing parameter r 0 is introduced in order to reduce the deviation of the value of E from that calculated using classical electrodynamics and integral calculus in the near zone. Normalization occurs at a point lying in a plane parallel to the neutron plane, removed from the center of the neutron by a distance (in the plane of the particle) and with a height shift of h=ħ/2m 0~ c, where m 0~ is the amount of mass enclosed in an alternating electromagnetic field neutron at rest (for a neutron m 0~ = 0.95784 m. For each equation, the parameter r 0 is calculated independently. The field radius can be taken as an approximate value:

From all of the above it follows that the electric dipole field of the neutron (the existence of which in nature, physics of the 20th century had no idea), according to the laws of classical electrodynamics, will interact with charged elementary particles.

4 Neutron rest mass

In accordance with classical electrodynamics and Einstein’s formula, the rest mass of elementary particles with quantum number L>0, including the neutron, is defined as the equivalent of the energy of their electromagnetic fields:

Where definite integral is taken over the entire electromagnetic field of an elementary particle, E is the electric field strength, H is the magnetic field strength. All components of the electromagnetic field are taken into account here: a constant electric field (which the neutron has), a constant magnetic field, an alternating electromagnetic field. This small, but very physics-capacious formula, on the basis of which the equations for the gravitational field of elementary particles are derived, will send more than one fairy-tale “theory” to the scrap heap - that’s why some of their authors will hate it.

As follows from the above formula, the value of the rest mass of a neutron depends on the conditions in which the neutron is located. Thus, by placing a neutron in a constant external electric field (for example, an atomic nucleus), we will affect E 2, which will affect the mass of the neutron and its stability. A similar situation will arise when a neutron is placed in a constant magnetic field. Therefore, some properties of a neutron inside an atomic nucleus differ from the same properties of a free neutron in a vacuum, far from fields.

5 Neutron lifetime

The lifetime of 880 seconds established by physics corresponds to a free neutron.

The field theory of elementary particles states that the lifetime of an elementary particle depends on the conditions in which it is located. By placing a neutron in external field(eg magnetic) we change the energy contained in its electromagnetic field. You can choose the direction of the external field so that internal energy neutron decreased. As a result, less energy will be released during the decay of a neutron, which will make decay more difficult and increase the lifetime of an elementary particle. It is possible to select such a value of the external field strength that the decay of the neutron will require additional energy and, therefore, the neutron will become stable. This is exactly what is observed in atomic nuclei (for example, deuterium), in which the magnetic field of neighboring protons prevents the decay of the neutrons of the nucleus. In other matters, when additional energy is introduced into the nucleus, neutron decays can again become possible.

6 New physics: Neutron (elementary particle) - summary

The Standard Model (omitted in this article, but which was claimed to be true in the 20th century) states that the neutron is a bound state of three quarks: one "up" (u) and two "down" (d) quarks (the proposed quark structure of the neutron: udd ). Since the presence of quarks in nature has not been experimentally proven, an electric charge equal in magnitude to the charge of hypothetical quarks in nature has not been detected, and there is only indirect evidence that can be interpreted as the presence of traces of quarks in some interactions of elementary particles, but can also be interpreted differently, then the statement The standard model that the neutron has a quark structure remains just an unproven assumption. Any model, including the Standard one, has the right to assume any structure of elementary particles, including the neutron, but until the corresponding particles from which the neutron supposedly consists are discovered at accelerators, the statement of the model should be considered unproven.

The standard model, describing the neutron, introduces quarks with gluons that are not found in nature (no one has found gluons either), fields and interactions that do not exist in nature, and comes into conflict with the law of conservation of energy;

The field theory of elementary particles (New Physics) describes the neutron based on the fields and interactions existing in nature within the framework of laws operating in nature - this is SCIENCE.

Vladimir Gorunovich

• Translation

At the center of every atom is the nucleus, a tiny collection of particles called protons and neutrons. In this article we will study the nature of protons and neutrons, which consist of even smaller particles - quarks, gluons and antiquarks. (Gluons, like photons, are their own antiparticles.) Quarks and gluons, as far as we know, can be truly elementary (indivisible and not consisting of anything smaller in size). But to them later.

Surprisingly, protons and neutrons have almost the same mass - accurate to within a percentage:

• 0.93827 GeV/c 2 for the proton,
• 0.93957 GeV/c 2 for a neutron.

Because they are so similar, and because these particles make up nuclei, protons and neutrons are often called nucleons.

Protons were identified and described around 1920 (although they were discovered earlier; the nucleus of a hydrogen atom is just a single proton), and neutrons were discovered around 1933. It was realized almost immediately that protons and neutrons are so similar to each other. But the fact that they have a measurable size comparable to the size of a nucleus (about 100,000 times smaller in radius than an atom) was not known until 1954. That they consist of quarks, antiquarks and gluons was gradually understood from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s. By the late 70s and early 80s, our understanding of protons, neutrons, and what they are made of had largely settled down, and has remained unchanged ever since.

Nucleons are much more difficult to describe than atoms or nuclei. Not to say that, but at least one can say without thinking that the helium atom consists of two electrons in orbit around a tiny helium nucleus; and the helium nucleus is a fairly simple group of two neutrons and two protons. But with nucleons everything is not so simple. I already wrote in the article “” that an atom is like an elegant minuet, and a nucleon is like a wild party.

The complexity of the proton and neutron appears to be genuine, and does not stem from incomplete knowledge of physics. We have equations used to describe quarks, antiquarks, and gluons, and the strong nuclear interactions that occur between them. These equations are called QCD, from quantum chromodynamics. The accuracy of the equations can be checked different ways, including measuring the number of particles appearing at the Large Hadron Collider. Substituting the QCD equations into the computer and running calculations of the properties of protons and neutrons, and other similar particles (with common name"hadrons"), we obtain predictions of the properties of these particles that closely approximate the observations made in real world. Therefore, we have reason to believe that the QCD equations do not lie, and that our knowledge of the proton and neutron is based on the correct equations. But just having the right equations is not enough, because:

• U simple equations may turn out to be very complex solutions,
• Sometimes it is impossible to describe complex decisions in a simple way.

Because of the inherent complexity of nucleons, you, the reader, will have to make a choice: how much do you want to know about the complexity described? No matter how far you go, it will most likely not bring you satisfaction: the more you learn, the clearer the topic will become, but the final answer will remain the same - the proton and neutron are very complex. I can offer you three levels of understanding, with increasing detail; you can stop after any level and move on to other topics, or you can dive in until the last one. Each level raises questions that I can partially answer in the next one, but new answers raise new questions. In the end - as I do in professional discussions with colleagues and advanced students - I can only refer you to the data obtained in real experiments, to various influential theoretical arguments, and computer simulations.

First level of understanding

Rice. 1: an overly simplified version of protons, consisting of only two up quarks and one down quark, and neutrons, consisting of only two down quarks and one up quark

To simplify matters, many books, articles and websites indicate that protons consist of three quarks (two up quarks and one down quark) and draw something like Fig. 1. The neutron is the same, only consisting of one up and two down quarks. This simple image illustrates what some scientists believed, mostly in the 1960s. But it soon became clear that this point of view was oversimplified to the point that it was no longer correct.

From more sophisticated sources of information, you will learn that protons are made up of three quarks (two up and one down) held together by gluons - and a picture similar to Fig. 1 may appear. 2, where gluons are drawn as springs or strings holding quarks. Neutrons are the same, only with one up quark and two down quarks.

Rice. 2: improvement fig. 1 due to the emphasis on important role strong nuclear force that holds quarks in a proton

Not so much bad way descriptions of nucleons, since he emphasizes the important role of the strong nuclear interaction, which holds quarks in the proton at the expense of gluons (just as the photon, the particle that makes up light, is associated with the electromagnetic interaction). But this is also confusing because it doesn't really explain what gluons are or what they do.

There are reasons to go ahead and describe things the way I did in: a proton consists of three quarks (two up and one down), a bunch of gluons, and a mountain of quark-antiquark pairs (mostly up and down quarks, but there are a few weird ones as well) . They all fly back and forth at very high speeds (approaching the speed of light); this entire set is held together by the strong nuclear force. I demonstrated this in Fig. 3. Neutrons are again the same, but with one up and two down quarks; The quark that changed its identity is indicated by an arrow.

Rice. 3: more realistic, although still imperfect, representation of protons and neutrons

These quarks, anti-quarks and gluons not only rush back and forth wildly, but also collide with each other and turn into each other through processes such as particle annihilation (in which a quark and an antiquark of the same type turn into two gluons, or vice versa) or absorption and emission of a gluon (in which a quark and a gluon can collide and produce a quark and two gluons, or vice versa).

What do these three descriptions have in common:

• Two up quarks and a down quark (plus something else) for a proton.
• The neutron has one up quark and two down quarks (plus something else).
• The “something else” of neutrons coincides with the “something else” of protons. That is, the nucleons have the same “something else”.
• The small difference in mass between the proton and the neutron appears due to the difference in the masses of the down quark and the up quark.

• for top quarks the electric charge is equal to 2/3 e (where e is the charge of a proton, -e is the charge of an electron),
• bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3e,
• gluons have a charge of 0,
• any quark and its corresponding antiquark have a total charge of 0 (for example, an antidown quark has a charge of +1/3e, so a down quark and a down quark will have a charge of –1/3 e +1/3 e = 0),

• the total electric charge of the proton is 2/3 e + 2/3 e – 1/3 e = e,
• the total electric charge of the neutron is 2/3 e – 1/3 e – 1/3 e = 0.

• how much “something else” is inside the nucleon,
• what is it doing there
• where does the mass and mass energy (E = mc 2, the energy present there even when the particle is at rest) of the nucleon come from.

Rice. 1 says that quarks are essentially a third of a nucleon, much like a proton or neutron is a quarter of a helium nucleus or 1/12 of a carbon nucleus. If this picture were true, the quarks in the nucleon would move relatively slowly (at speeds much slower than light) with relatively weak interactions acting between them (albeit with some powerful force holding them in place). The mass of the quark, up and down, would then be on the order of 0.3 GeV/c 2 , about a third of the mass of the proton. But this simple image and the ideas it imposes are simply wrong.

Rice. 3. gives a completely different idea of ​​the proton, as a cauldron of particles scurrying around in it at speeds close to light. These particles collide with each other, and in these collisions, some of them are annihilated and others are created in their place. Gluons have no mass, the masses of the top quarks are on the order of 0.004 GeV/c 2 , and the masses of the bottom quarks are on the order of 0.008 GeV/c 2 - hundreds of times less than a proton. Where the energy of the proton mass comes from is a complex question: part of it comes from the energy of the mass of quarks and antiquarks, part from the energy of motion of quarks, antiquarks and gluons, and part (possibly positive, perhaps negative) from the energy stored in the strong nuclear interaction, holding quarks, antiquarks and gluons together.

In a sense, Fig. 2 attempts to resolve the difference between Fig. 1 and fig. 3. It simplifies the figure. 3, removing many quark-antiquark pairs, which, in principle, can be called ephemeral, since they constantly appear and disappear, and are not necessary. But it gives the impression that the gluons in the nucleons are a direct part of the strong nuclear force that holds the protons together. And it doesn't explain where the proton's mass comes from.

In Fig. 1 there is another drawback, in addition to the narrow frames of the proton and neutron. It does not explain some properties of other hadrons, for example, pion and rho meson. Fig. has the same problems. 2.

These restrictions led to the fact that I give my students and on my website the picture from Fig. 3. But I want to warn you that it also has many limitations, which I will discuss later.

It is worth noting that the extreme complexity of the structure implied by Fig. 3, one would expect from an object that is held together by such powerful force, like the strong nuclear force. And one more thing: three quarks (two up and one down for a proton) that are not part of a group of quark-antiquark pairs are often called “valence quarks”, and quark-antiquark pairs are called a “sea of ​​quark pairs”. Such a language is technically convenient in many cases. But it gives the false impression that if you could look inside a proton, and look at a particular quark, you could immediately tell whether it was part of the sea or a valence one. This cannot be done, there is simply no such way.

Proton mass and neutron mass

Rice. 1 says that the up and down quarks simply make up 1/3 of the mass of the proton and neutron: on the order of 0.313 GeV/c 2, or because of the energy required to hold the quarks in the proton. And since the difference between the masses of a proton and a neutron is a fraction of a percent, the difference between the masses of an up and down quark must also be a fraction of a percent.

Rice. 2 is less clear. How much of a proton's mass is due to gluons? But, in principle, it follows from the figure that most of the proton mass still comes from the mass of quarks, as in Fig. 1.

Rice. 3 reflects a more nuanced approach to how the proton's mass actually appears (as we can check directly through computer calculations of the proton, and indirectly using other mathematical methods). It is very different from the ideas presented in Fig. 1 and 2, and it turns out not so simple.

To understand how this works, you need to think not in terms of the proton's mass m, but in terms of its mass energy E = mc 2 , the energy associated with mass. Conceptually, the correct question is not “where does the mass of the proton m come from,” after which you can calculate E by multiplying m by c 2 , but vice versa: “where does the energy of the proton mass E come from,” after which you can calculate the mass m by dividing E by c 2 .

It is useful to classify contributions to the proton mass energy into three groups:

A) Mass energy (rest energy) of the quarks and antiquarks contained in it (gluons, massless particles, do not make any contribution).
B) Energy of motion (kinetic energy) of quarks, antiquarks and gluons.
C) Interaction energy (binding energy or potential energy) stored in the strong nuclear interaction (more precisely, in the gluon fields) holding the proton.

Rice. 3 says that the particles inside the proton move at high speed, and that it is full of massless gluons, so the contribution of B) is greater than A). Typically, in most physical systems B) and C) turn out to be comparable, while C) is often negative. So the mass energy of the proton (and neutron) mainly comes from the combination of B) and C), with A) contributing a small fraction. Therefore, the masses of the proton and neutron appear mainly not because of the masses of the particles they contain, but because of the energies of motion of these particles and the energy of their interaction associated with the gluon fields that generate the forces that hold the proton. In most other systems familiar to us, the energy balance is distributed differently. For example, in atoms and in solar system A) dominates, and B) and C) are much smaller and comparable in magnitude.

To summarize, we point out that:

• Rice. 1 assumes that the proton mass energy comes from contribution A).
• Rice. 2 assumes that both contributions A) and B) are important, with B) making a small contribution.
• Rice. 3 suggests that B) and C) are important, and the contribution of A) turns out to be insignificant.

If fig. 3 does not lie, the masses of the quark and antiquark are very small. What are they really like? The mass of the top quark (as well as the antiquark) does not exceed 0.005 GeV/c 2, which is much less than 0.313 GeV/c 2, which follows from Fig. 1. (The mass of the up quark is difficult to measure and varies due to subtle effects, so it may be much less than 0.005 GeV/c2). The mass of the bottom quark is approximately 0.004 GeV/s 2 greater than the mass of the top quark. This means that the mass of any quark or antiquark does not exceed one percent of the mass of a proton.

Note that this means (contrary to Fig. 1) that the ratio of down quark to up quark mass does not approach unity! The mass of the down quark is at least twice the mass of the up quark. The reason that the masses of the neutron and proton are so similar is not because the masses of the up and down quarks are similar, but because the masses of the up and down quarks are very small - and the difference between them is small, relative to the masses of the proton and neutron. Remember that to turn a proton into a neutron, you simply need to replace one of its up quarks with a down quark (Figure 3). This replacement is enough to make the neutron slightly heavier than the proton, and change its charge from +e to 0.

By the way, the fact that the various particles inside the proton collide with each other, and are constantly appearing and disappearing, does not affect the things we are discussing - energy is conserved in any collision. The mass energy and energy of motion of quarks and gluons can change, as can the energy of their interaction, but the total energy of the proton does not change, although everything inside it is constantly changing. So the mass of the proton remains constant, despite its internal vortex.

At this point you can stop and absorb the information received. Amazing! Virtually all the mass contained in ordinary matter comes from the mass of nucleons in atoms. And most of this mass comes from the chaos inherent in the proton and neutron - from the energy of motion of quarks, gluons and antiquarks in nucleons, and from the energy of the strong nuclear interactions that hold the nucleon in its entire state. Yes: our planet, our bodies, our breath are the result of such quiet, and, until recently, unimaginable pandemonium.

NEUTRON(n) (from Latin neuter - neither one nor the other) - an elementary particle with zero electric power. charge and mass, insignificant greater mass proton. Along with the proton under the general name. The nucleon is part of atomic nuclei. H. has spin 1/2 and therefore obeys Fermi - Dirac statistics(is a fermion). Belongs to the family adra-nov; has baryon number B= 1, i.e. included in the group baryons.

Discovered in 1932 by J. Chadwick, who showed that hard penetrating radiation arising from the bombardment of beryllium nuclei by a-particles consists of electrically neutral particles with a mass approximately equal to that of a proton. In 1932, D. D. Ivanenko and W. Heisenberg hypothesized that atomic nuclei consist of protons and H. Unlike charge. particles, H. easily penetrates into nuclei at any energy and is highly likely to cause nuclear reactions capture (n,g), (n,a), (n, p), if the energy balance in the reaction is positive. Probability of exothermic increases as H slows down. inversely proportional. his speed. An increase in the probability of H. capture reactions when they are slowed down in hydrogen-containing media was discovered by E. Fermi and co-workers in 1934. The ability of H. to cause the fission of heavy nuclei, discovered by O. Hahn and F. Strassmann (F . Strassman) in 1938 (see. Nuclear fission), served as the basis for the creation nuclear weapons And . The peculiarity of the interaction with matter of slow neutrons, which have a de Broglie wavelength on the order of atomic distances (resonance effects, diffraction, etc.), serves as the basis for the widespread use of neutron beams in solid state physics. (Classification of H. by energies - fast, slow, thermal, cold, ultra-cold - see Art. Neutron physics.)

In the free state, H. is unstable - it undergoes B-decay; n p + e - + v e; its lifetime t n = 898(14) s, the limiting energy of the electron spectrum is 782 keV (see. Neutron beta decay). In a bound state as part of stable nuclei, H. is stable (according to experimental estimates, its lifetime exceeds 10 32 years). According to astr. It is estimated that 15% of the visible matter of the Universe is represented by H., which is part of the 4 He nuclei. H. is the main component neutron stars. Free H. in nature are formed in nuclear reactions, caused by a-particles of radioactive decay, cosmic rays and as a result of spontaneous or forced fission of heavy nuclei. Art. sources of H. are nuclear reactors, nuclear explosions, accelerators of protons (at average energy) and electrons with targets made of heavy elements. The sources of monochromatic H. beams with an energy of 14 MeV are low-energy. deuteron accelerators with a tritium or lithium target, and in the future, thermonuclear thermonuclear installations may turn out to be intense sources of such H. (Cm. .)

Main characteristics of H.

Mass H. t p = 939.5731(27) MeV/s 2 = = 1.008664967(34) at. units mass 1.675. 10 -24 g. The difference between the masses of H. and the proton was measured from the max. accuracy from energy. balance of the reaction of H. capture by a proton: n + p d + g (g-quantum energy = 2.22 MeV), m n- m p = 1.293323 (16) MeV/c 2 .

Electric charge H. Q n = 0. Most accurate direct measurements Q n are made by deflecting beams of cold or ultra-cold H. into electrostatic. field: Q n<= 3·10 -21 her- electron charge). Kosv. electrical data neutrality macroscopic. amount of gas they give Q n<= 2·10 -22 e.

Spin H. J= 1/2 was determined from direct experiments on splitting a H beam in an inhomogeneous magnetic field. field into two components [in the general case, the number of components is equal to (2 J + 1)].

Consistent description of the structure of hadrons based on modern theory of strong interaction - quantum chromodynamics- while meeting the theoretical one. difficulties, however, for many will completely satisfy the tasks. the results are given by a description of the interaction of nucleons, represented as elementary objects, through the exchange of mesons. Let's experiment. exploration of spaces. structure of H. is carried out using the scattering of high-energy leptons (electrons, muons, neutrinos, considered in modern theory as point particles) on deuterons. The contribution of scattering on a proton is measured in dep. experiment and can be subtracted using the definition. will calculate. procedures.

Elastic and quasi-elastic (with deuteron splitting) electron scattering on a deuteron makes it possible to find the electrical density distribution. charge and magnetic moment H. ( form factor H.). According to the experiment, the distribution of magnetic density. moment H. with an accuracy of the order of several. percent coincides with the distribution of electrical density. proton charge and has a root-mean-square radius of ~0.8·10 -13 cm (0.8 F). Magn. H. form factor is described quite well by the so-called. dipole f-loy G M n = m n (1 + q 2 /0.71) -2, where q 2 - square of the transferred momentum in units (GeV/c) 2.

A more complex question is about the magnitude of the electric current. (charge) form factor H. G E n. From deuteron scattering experiments we can conclude that G E n ( q 2 ) <= 0.1 in the interval of squares of transmitted impulses (0-1) (GeV/c) 2. At q 2 0 due to the equality to zero electric. charge H. G E n- > 0, however, it can be determined experimentally dG E n ( q 2 )/dq 2 | q 2=0 . This value is max. exactly found from measurements scattering lengths H. on the electron shell of heavy atoms. Basic Part of this interaction is determined by the magnetic field. moment H. Max. precise experiments give the ne-scattering length A ne = -1.378(18) . 10 -16 cm, which differs from the calculated value determined by the magnetic field. moment H.: a ne = -1.468. 10 -16 cm. The difference between these values ​​gives the mean square electric. radius H.<r 2 E n >= = 0.088(12) Fili dG E n ( q 2)/dq 2 | q 2=0 = -0.02 F 2 . These figures cannot be considered final due to the large scatter of data, decomposition. experiments exceeding the reported errors.

A feature of H.'s interaction with most nuclei is positive. scattering length, which leads to coefficient. refraction< 1. Благодаря этому H., падающие из вакуума на границу вещества, могут испытывать полное внутр. отражение. При скорости u < (5-8) м/с (ультрахолодные H.) H. испытывают полное отражение от границы с углеродом, никелем, бериллием и др. при любом угле падения и могут удерживаться в замкнутых объёмах. Это свойство ультрахолодных H. широко используется в экспериментах (напр., для поиска ЭДМ H.) и позволяет реализовать нейтронооптич. устройства (см. Neutron optics).

H. and weak (electroweak) interaction. An important source of information about electroweak interaction is the b-decay of free H. At the quark level, this process corresponds to the transition. The reverse process of interaction between an electron and a proton is called. reverse b-decay. This class of processes includes electronic capture, taking place in nuclei, re - n v e.

Decay of free H. taking into account kinematics. parameters are described by two constants - vector G V, which is due to vector conservation current univers. weak interaction constant, and axial-vector G A, the value of the cut is determined by the dynamics of the strongly interacting components of the nucleon - quarks and gluons. Wave functions of the initial H. and final proton and the matrix element of the n p transition due to isotopic. invariances are calculated quite accurately. As a result, the calculation of the constants G V And G A from the decay of free H. (in contrast to calculations from the b-decay of nuclei) is not associated with taking into account nuclear structural factors.

The lifetime of H. without taking into account certain corrections is equal to: t n = k(G 2 V+ 3G 2 A) -1 , where k includes kinematic factors and Coulomb corrections depending on the boundary energy of b-decay and radiation corrections.

Probability of polarizer decay. H. with spin S , energies and momenta of the electron and antineutrino and R e, is generally described by the expression:

Coef. correlations a, A, B, D can be represented as a function from a parameter a = (G A/G V,)exp( i f). Phase f is different from zero or p if T-invariance is broken. In table experimental data are given. values ​​for these coefficients. and the resulting meanings a and f.

There is a noticeable difference between these data. experiments for t n, reaching several. percent.

The description of the electroweak interaction involving H. at higher energies is much more complicated due to the need to take into account the structure of nucleons. For example, m - -capture, m - p n v m is described by at least twice the number of constants. H. also experiences electroweak interaction with other hadrons without the participation of leptons. Such processes include the following.

1) Decays of hyperons L np 0, S + np +, S - np -, etc. The reduced probability of these decays is several. times less than for non-strange particles, which is described by introducing the Cabibbo angle (see. Cabibbo corner).

2) Weak interaction n - n or n - p, which manifests itself as nuclear forces that do not preserve spaces. parity The usual magnitude of the effects caused by them is of the order of 10 -6 -10 -7.

H.'s interaction with medium and heavy nuclei has a number of features, leading in some cases to mean. enhancing effects non-conservation of parity in kernels. One of these effects is related. the difference in the absorption cross section of H. c in the direction of propagation and against it, edges in the case of the 139 La nucleus is equal to 7% at = 1.33 eV, corresponding to R- wave neutron resonance. The reason for the increase is the combination of low energy. the width of the states of the compound nucleus and the high density of levels with opposite parities in this compound nucleus, which provides 2-3 orders of magnitude greater mixing of components with different parities than in low-lying states of nuclei. The result is a number of effects: asymmetry of the emission of g-quanta relative to the spin of the captured polarizers. H. in the reaction (n, g), asymmetry of charge emission. particles during the decay of compound states in the reaction (n, p) or the asymmetry of the emission of a light (or heavy) fission fragment in the reaction (n, f). The asymmetries have a value of 10 -4 -10 -3 at thermal energy H. V R-wave neutron resonances are realized in addition. enhancement associated with the suppression of the probability of the formation of a parity-preserving component of this compound state (due to the small neutron width R-resonance) with respect to the impurity component with opposite parity, which is s-resonance-som. It is the combination of several. amplification factors allows an extremely weak effect to manifest itself with a magnitude characteristic of nuclear interaction.

Interactions with baryon number violation. Theoretical models grand unification And superunifications predict the instability of baryons - their decay into leptons and mesons. These decays can be noticeable only for the lightest baryons - p and n, which are part of atomic nuclei. For interaction with a change in baryon number by 1, D B= 1, one would expect a H. type transformation: n e + p - , or a transformation with the emission of strange mesons. The search for processes of this kind was carried out in experiments using underground detectors with a mass of several. thousand tons. Based on these experiments, it can be concluded that the decay time of H. with a violation of the baryon number is more than 10 32 years.

Dr. possible type of interaction with D IN= 2 can lead to the phenomenon of interconversion of H. and antineutrons in a vacuum, i.e. to oscillation . In the absence of external fields or at their low magnitude, the states of H. and the antineutron are degenerate, since their masses are the same, therefore even an ultra-weak interaction can mix them. The criterion of small external fields is the smallness of the interaction energy magnetic. moment H. with magnet. field (n and n ~ have magnetic moments of opposite sign) compared to the energy determined by time T observations H. (according to the uncertainty relation), D<=hT-1 . When observing the production of antineutrons in an H beam from a reactor or other source T is the time of flight H. to the detector. The number of antineutrons in the beam increases quadratically with increasing time of flight: /N n ~ ~ (T/t osc) 2, where t osc is the oscillation time.

Direct experiments on observing the production in beams of cold H. from a high-flux reactor give a limitation of t osc > 10 7 s. In the experiments being prepared, one can expect an increase in sensitivity to the level of t osc ~ 10 9 s. The limiting circumstances are max. intensity of H. beams and simulation of antineutron phenomena in the cosmic detector. rays.

Dr. method of observing oscillations - observing the annihilation of antineutrons, which can be formed in stable nuclei. Moreover, due to the large difference between the interaction energies of the emerging antineutron in the nucleus and the binding energy H. eff. the observation time becomes ~ 10 -22 s, but the large number of observed nuclei (~ 10 32) partially compensates for the decrease in sensitivity compared to the experiment on H beams. From the data of underground experiments searching for proton decay, the absence of events with an energy release of ~ 2 GeV can be concluded with a certain uncertainty, depending on ignorance of the exact type of interaction of the antineutron inside the nucleus, that t osc > (1-3). 10 7 p. Creatures The increase in the limit of t osc in these experiments is hampered by the background caused by the interaction of cosmic particles. neutrinos with nuclei in underground detectors.

It should be noted that the search for nucleon decay with D B= 1 and the search for -oscillations are independent experiments, since they are caused by fundamentally different types of interactions.

Gravitational interaction H. The neutron is one of the few elementary particles that fall into gravity. The Earth's field can be observed experimentally. Direct measurement for H. is carried out with an accuracy of 0.3% and does not differ from the macroscopic one. The issue of compliance remains relevant equivalence principle(equality of inertial and gravitational masses) for H. and protons.

The most accurate experiments were carried out using the Et-weight method for bodies with different averages. ratio values A/Z, Where A- at. number, Z- charge of nuclei (in units of elementary charge e). From these experiments it follows that the acceleration of gravity for H. and protons is identical at the level of 2·10 -9, and the equality of gravity. and inert masses at the level of ~10 -12.

Gravity acceleration and deceleration are widely used in experiments with ultracold H. Application of gravity. A refractometer for cold and ultracold H. allows one to measure with great accuracy the lengths of coherent scattering of H. on a substance.

H. in cosmology and astrophysics

According to modern ideas, in the Hot Universe model (see. Hot Universe theory)The formation of baryons, including protons and hydrogen, occurs in the first minutes of the life of the Universe. Subsequently, a certain part of the H., which did not have time to decay, is captured by protons with the formation of 4 He. The ratio of hydrogen and 4 He is 70% to 30% by weight. During the formation of stars and their evolution, further nucleosynthesis, down to iron nuclei. The formation of heavier nuclei occurs as a result of supernova explosions with the birth of neutron stars, creating the possibility of successive. capture of H. by nuclides. In this case, the combination of the so-called. s-process - slow capture of H. with b-decay between successive captures and r-process - fast sequential. capture during explosions of stars mainly. may explain the observed prevalence of elements in space objects.

In the primary component of the cosmic H. rays are probably absent due to their instability. H., formed at the surface of the Earth, diffusing into space. space and those decaying there apparently contribute to the formation of the electron and proton components radiation belts Earth.

Lit.: Gurevich I.S., Tarasov L.V., Physics of Low Energy Neutrons, M., 1965; Alexandrov Yu. A. Fundamental properties of the neutron, 2nd ed., M., 1982.

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.
If you enlarge an average-sized apple to the size of the Earth, the atoms will become only the size of an apple. Despite such small dimensions, the atom consists of even smaller physical particles.
You should already be familiar with the structure of the atom from your school physics course. And yet, let us recall that the atom contains a nucleus and electrons, which rotate around the nucleus so quickly that they become indistinguishable - they form an “electron cloud”, or the electron shell of the atom.

Electrons usually denoted as follows: e − . Electrons e− very light, almost weightless, but they have negative electric charge. It is equal to −1. The electric current we all use is a stream of electrons running in wires.

Atomic nucleus, in which almost all of its mass is concentrated, consists of particles of two types - neutrons and protons.

Neutrons denoted as follows: n 0 , A protons So: p + .
In terms of mass, neutrons and protons are almost the same - 1.675 10−24 g and 1.673 10−24 g.
True, it is very inconvenient to count the mass of such small particles in grams, so it is expressed in carbon units, each of which is equal to 1.673 10 −24 g.
For each particle we get relative atomic mass, equal to the quotient of the mass of an atom (in grams) divided by the mass of a carbon unit. The relative atomic masses of a proton and a neutron are equal to 1, but the charge of protons is positive and equal to +1, while neutrons have no charge.

. Riddles about the atom

An atom can be assembled “in the mind” from particles, like a toy or a car from parts of a children’s construction set. It is only necessary to observe two important conditions.

• First condition: each type of atom has its own own set"details" - elementary particles. For example, a hydrogen atom will definitely have a nucleus with a positive charge of +1, which means it must certainly have one proton (and no more).
  A hydrogen atom can also contain neutrons. More on this in the next paragraph.
  The oxygen atom (atomic number in the Periodic Table is 8) will have a nucleus charged eight positive charges (+8), which means there are eight protons. Since the mass of an oxygen atom is 16 relative units, to get an oxygen nucleus, we add another 8 neutrons.
• Second condition is that each atom should be electrically neutral. To do this, it must have enough electrons to balance the charge of the nucleus. In other words, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in its core, as well as the serial number of this element in the Periodic Table.

The entire material world, according to modern physics, is built from three elementary particles: proton, neutron and electron. In addition, according to science, there are other “elementary” particles of matter in the universe, the names of which are clearly more than normal. At the same time, the function of these other “elementary particles” in the existence and evolution of the universe is unclear.

Let's consider another interpretation of elementary particles:

There is only one elementary particle of matter - the proton. All other “elementary particles,” including the neutron and electron, are only derivatives of the proton, and they play a very modest role in the evolution of the universe. Let us consider how such “elementary particles” are formed.

We examined in detail the structure of an elementary particle of matter in the article ““. Briefly about the elementary particle:

• An elementary particle of matter has the shape of an elongated thread in space.
• An elementary particle is capable of stretching. During the stretching process, the density of matter inside an elementary particle decreases.
• We called the region of an elementary particle where the density of matter drops by half quantum of matter .
• In the process of movement, an elementary particle continuously absorbs (collapses) energy.
• Energy Absorption Point( annihilation point ) is located at the tip of the motion vector of the elementary particle.
• More precisely: at the tip of the active quantum of matter.
• By absorbing energy, an elementary particle continuously increases the speed of its translational motion.
• An elementary particle of matter is a dipole. In which the attractive forces are concentrated in the front part (along the direction of movement) of the particle, and the repulsive forces are concentrated in the rear part.

The property of being elemental in space theoretically means the possibility of reducing the density of matter to zero. And this, in turn, means the possibility of its mechanical rupture: the place where an elementary particle of matter ruptures can be represented as its section with zero matter density.

In the process of annihilation (energy absorption), an elementary particle, collapsing energy, continuously increases the speed of its translational motion in space.

The evolution of the galaxy ultimately brings elementary particles of matter to the point where they become capable of exerting a tearing effect on each other. Elementary particles may not meet on parallel courses, when one particle approaches another slowly and smoothly, like a ship approaching a pier. They can meet in space and on opposing trajectories. Then a hard collision and, as a consequence, the rupture of an elementary particle is almost inevitable. They can fall under a very powerful wave of energy disturbance, which also leads to rupture.

What could be the “fragments” formed as a result of the rupture of an elementary particle of matter?

Let us consider the case when, as a result of external influence, an elementary particle of matter - a deuterium atom - decayed into a proton and a neutron.

The rupture of the pair structure does not occur at the point of their connection - . One of the two elementary particles of the pair structure breaks.

The proton and neutron differ from each other in their structure.

• A proton is a slightly shortened (after breaking) elementary particle,
• neutron is a structure consisting of one full-fledged elementary particle and a “stump” - the front, light end of the first particle.

A full-fledged elementary particle has a complete set - “N” quanta of matter in its composition. A proton has “N-n” quanta of matter. A neutron has “N+n” quanta.

The behavior of the proton is clear. Even having lost the final quanta of matter, it continues to actively energy: the density of matter of its new final quantum always corresponds to the conditions of annihilation. This new final quantum of matter becomes a new point of annihilation. In general, the proton behaves as expected. The properties of protons are well described in any physics textbook. Only it will become a little lighter than its “full-fledged” brother - a full-fledged elementary particle of matter.

The neutron behaves differently. Let us first consider the structure of the neutron. It is its structure that explains its “strangeness.”

Essentially, a neutron consists of two parts. The first part is a full-fledged elementary particle of matter with an annihilation point at its front end. The second part is a greatly shortened, light “stump” of the first elementary particle, remaining after the rupture of the double structure, and also has an annihilation point. These two parts are connected by annihilation points. Thus, the neutron has a double annihilation point.

The logic of thinking suggests that these two weighted parts of the neuron will behave differently. If the first part, which is a full-weight elementary particle, will, as expected, annihilate free energy and gradually accelerate in the space of the universe, then the second, lightweight part, begins to annihilate free energy at a higher rate.

The movement of an elementary particle of matter in space is carried out thanks to: diffusing energy drags the particle caught in its flows. It is clear that the less massive a particle of matter is, the easier it is for energy flows to drag this particle along with it, the higher the speed of this particle. It is clear that the greater the amount of energy that simultaneously folds an active quantum, the more powerful the flows of diffusing energy, the easier it is for these flows to drag a particle along with them. We get the dependency: The speed of translational motion of a particle of matter in space is proportional to the mass of matter of its active quantum and inversely proportional to the total mass of the particle of matter :

The second, lightweight part of the neutron has a mass many times less than the mass of a full-weight elementary particle of matter. But the masses of their active quanta are equal. That is: they annihilate energy at the same rate. We get: the speed of translational motion of the second part of the neutron will tend to increase quickly, and it begins to annihilate energy faster. (To avoid confusion, we will call the second, lightweight part of the neutron an electron).

neutron drawing

A sharply increasing amount of energy simultaneously annihilated by an electron, while it is part of the neutron, leads to inertia of the neutron. The electron begins to annihilate more energy than its “neighbor” - a full-fledged elementary particle. It cannot yet break away from the common point of neutron annihilation: powerful forces of attraction interfere. As a result, the electron begins to “eat” behind the common annihilation point.

At the same time, the electron begins to shift relative to its partner and its condensation of free energy falls into the zone of action of the annihilation point of its neighbor. Which immediately begins to “eat” this condensation. This switching of an electron and a full-fledged particle to “internal” resources—condensation of free energy behind the annihilation point—leads to a rapid drop in the forces of attraction and repulsion of the neutron.

The separation of an electron from the general structure of the neutron occurs at the moment when the displacement of the electron relative to a full-weight elementary particle becomes large enough, the force tending to break the bonds of attraction of two annihilation points begins to exceed the force of attraction of these annihilation points, and the second, light part of the neutron (electron) quickly flies away away.

As a result, the neutron decays into two units: a full-fledged elementary particle - a proton and a light, shortened part of an elementary particle of matter - an electron.

According to modern data, the structure of a single neutron exists for about fifteen minutes. It then spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron. These fifteen minutes are the time of displacement of the electron relative to the common point of annihilation of the neutron and its struggle for its “freedom”.

Let's summarize some results:

• A PROTON is a full-fledged elementary particle of matter, with one point of annihilation, or a heavy part of an elementary particle of matter remaining after light quanta are separated from it.
• NEUTRON is a double structure, having two points of annihilation, and consisting of an elementary particle of matter, and a light, forward part of another elementary particle of matter.
• ELECTRON – the front part of an elementary particle of matter, which has one annihilation point, consisting of light quanta, formed as a result of the rupture of an elementary particle of matter.
• The “proton-neutron” structure recognized by science is a DEUTERIA ATOM – a structure of two elementary particles that has a double annihilation point.

An electron is not an independent elementary particle rotating around the nucleus of an atom.

The electron, as science considers it, is not part of the atom.

And the nucleus of an atom, as such, does not exist in nature, just as the neutron does not exist in the form of an independent elementary particle of matter.

Both the electron and the neutron are derivatives of a pair structure of two elementary particles, after it is broken into two unequal parts as a result of external influence. In the composition of an atom of any chemical element, a proton and a neutron represent a standard pair structure - two full-weight elementary particles of matter - two protons, united by annihilation points.

In modern physics, there is an unshakable position that the proton and electron have equal but opposite electrical charges. Supposedly, as a result of the interaction of these opposite charges, they are attracted to each other. Quite a logical explanation. It correctly reflects the mechanism of the phenomenon, but is completely incorrect - its essence.

Elementary particles have neither positive nor negative “electric” charges, just as there is no special form of matter in the form of an “electric field”. Such “electricity” is an invention of man, caused by his inability to explain the existing state of affairs.

The "electricity" of electrons to each other is actually created by flows of energy directed towards their points of annihilation, as a result of their forward motion in the space of the universe. When they fall within the range of each other's gravitational forces. It really looks like an interaction of equal but opposite electric charges.

“same electric charges”, for example: two protons or two electrons also has another explanation. Repulsion occurs when one of the particles falls into the zone of action of the repulsive forces of another particle - that is, into the zone of energy concentration behind its annihilation point. We looked at this in the previous article.

The interaction “proton – antiproton”, “electron – positron” also has another explanation. By such interaction we mean the interaction of the spirit of protons or electrons when they move on opposite courses. In this case, due to their interaction only by attraction (there is no repulsion, since the repulsion zone of each of them is behind them), their hard contact occurs. As a result, instead of two protons (electrons), we get completely different “elementary particles”, which are actually derivatives of the rigid interaction of these two protons (electrons).

Atomic structure of substances. Atom model

Let's consider the structure of the atom.

The neutron and electron - as elementary particles of matter - do not exist. We discussed this above. Accordingly: there is no nucleus of an atom and its electron shell. This error is a powerful obstacle to further research into the structure of matter.

The only elementary particle of matter is the proton. An atom of any chemical element consists of pair structures of two elementary particles of matter (with the exception of isotopes, where more elementary particles are added to the pair structure).

For our further discussions it is necessary to consider the concept of a common point of annihilation.

Elementary particles of matter interact with each other through annihilation points. This interaction leads to the formation of material structures: atoms, molecules, physical bodies... Which have a common point of annihilation of an atom, a common point of annihilation of a molecule...

COMMON POINT OF ANNIHILATION - is the unification of two single points of annihilation of elementary particles of matter into a common point of annihilation of a pair structure, or common points of annihilation of pair structures into a common point of annihilation of an atom of a chemical element, or common points of annihilation of atoms of chemical elements into a common point of annihilation of a molecule.

The main thing here is that the union of particles of matter acts by attraction and repulsion as a single integral object. In the end, even any physical body can be represented as a common point of annihilation of this physical body: this body attracts other physical bodies to itself as a single, integral physical object, as a single point of annihilation. In this case, we get gravitational phenomena - attraction between physical bodies.

In the phase of the galactic development cycle, when the attractive forces become strong enough, the unification of deuterium atoms into the structures of other atoms begins. Atoms of chemical elements are formed sequentially, as the speed of translational motion of elementary particles of matter increases (read: the speed of translational motion of a galaxy in the space of the universe increases) by attaching new pair structures of elementary particles of matter to the deuterium atom.

The unification occurs sequentially: in each new atom one new pair structure of elementary particles of matter appears (less often, a single elementary particle). What does the combination of deuterium atoms into the structure of other atoms give us:

1. A common point of annihilation of the atom appears. This means that our atom will interact by attraction and repulsion with all other atoms and elementary particles as a single integral structure.
2. An atomic space appears, inside which the density of free energy will be many times greater than the density of free energy outside its space. A very high energy density behind a single point of annihilation inside the space of an atom simply will not have time to fall much: the distances between elementary particles are too small. The average free energy density in intra-atomic space is many times greater than the value of the free energy density constant of the space of the universe.

In the construction of atoms of chemical elements, molecules of chemical substances, physical bodies, the most important law of interaction of material particles and bodies is manifested:

The strength of intranuclear, chemical, electrical, gravitational bonds depends on the distances between points of annihilation inside an atom, between common points of annihilation of atoms inside molecules, between common points of annihilation of molecules inside physical bodies, between physical bodies. The smaller the distance between the common points of annihilation, the more powerful the attractive forces acting between them.

It is clear that:

• By intranuclear bonds we mean interactions between elementary particles and between pair structures within atoms.
• By chemical bonds we mean interactions between atoms in the structure of molecules.
• By electrical connections we mean interactions between molecules in physical bodies, liquids, and gases.
• By gravitational connections we mean interactions between physical bodies.

The formation of the second chemical element - the helium atom - occurs when the galaxy accelerates in space to a sufficiently high speed. When the attractive force of two deuterium atoms reaches a large value, they approach at distances that allow them to combine into the quadruple structure of the helium atom.

A further increase in the speed of translational motion of the galaxy leads to the formation of atoms of subsequent (according to the periodic table) chemical elements. At the same time: the genesis of the atoms of each chemical element corresponds to its own, strictly defined speed of translational motion of the galaxy in the space of the universe. Let's call her standard rate of formation of an atom of a chemical element .

The helium atom is the second atom after hydrogen to form in the galaxy. Then, as the speed of the translational motion of the galaxy increases, the next deuterium atom breaks through to the helium atom. This means that the rate of translational motion of the galaxy has reached the standard rate of formation of a lithium atom. Then it will reach the standard rate of formation of an atom of beryllium, carbon..., and so on, according to the periodic table.

atomic model

From the above diagram we can see that:

1. Each period in the atom is a ring of paired structures.
2. The center of the atom is always occupied by the quadruple structure of the helium atom.
3. All paired structures of the same period are located strictly in the same plane.
4. The distances between periods are much greater than the distances between paired structures within the same period.

Of course, this is a very simplified diagram, and it does not reflect all the realities of atom construction. For example: each new pair structure, joining an atom, displaces the other pair structures of the period it joins.

We obtain the principle of constructing a period in the form of a ring around the geometric center of the atom:

• the structure of the period is built in one plane. This is facilitated by the general vector of translational motion of all elementary particles of the galaxy.
• paired structures of the same period are built around the geometric center of the atom at an equal distance.
• the atom around which a new period is built behaves towards this new period as a single integral system.

So we get the most important pattern of structure of atoms of chemical elements:

REGULARITY OF A STRICTLY DEFINED NUMBER OF PAIRED STRUCTURES: at the same time, at a certain distance from the geometric center of the common point of annihilation of an atom, only a certain number of paired structures of elementary particles of matter can be located.

That is: in the second, third periods of the periodic table - eight elements each, in the fourth, fifth - eighteen each, in the sixth, seventh - thirty-two each. The increasing diameter of the atom allows the number of pair structures to increase in each subsequent period.

It is clear that this pattern determines the principle of periodicity in the construction of atoms of chemical elements, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev.

Each period inside an atom of a chemical element behaves in relation to it as a single integral system. This is determined by jumps in distances between periods: much larger than the distances between paired structures within a period.

An atom with an incomplete period exhibits chemical activity in accordance with the above-mentioned pattern. Because there is an imbalance of the forces of attraction and repulsion of the atom in favor of the forces of attraction. But with the addition of the last pair structure, the imbalance disappears, the new period takes the form of a regular circle - it becomes a single, integral, complete system. And we get an inert gas atom.

The most important pattern in constructing the structure of an atom is: the atom has a flat-cascadestructure . Something like a chandelier.

• paired structures of the same period must be located in the same plane, perpendicular to the vector of translational motion of the atom.
• at the same time, the periods in the atom must be arranged in a cascade.

This explains why in the second and third periods (as well as in the fourth - fifth, sixth - seventh) there are the same number of pair structures (see figure below). This atomic structure is a consequence of the distribution of forces of attraction and repulsion of an elementary particle: attractive forces act in the front (in the direction of motion) hemisphere of the particle, repulsive forces act in the rear hemisphere.

Otherwise, the concentrations of free energy behind the annihilation points of some pair structures fall into the zone of attraction of the annihilation points of other pair structures, and the atom will inevitably fall apart.

Below we see a schematic volumetric image of an argon atom

argon atom model

In the figure below we can see a “section”, a “side view” of two periods of the atom - the second and third:

This is exactly how paired structures in periods with an equal number of paired structures (second - third, fourth - fifth, sixth - seventh) should be oriented, relative to the center of the atom.

The amount of energy in the condensation behind the point of annihilation of an elementary particle is continuously growing. This becomes clear from the formula:

E 1 ~m(C+W)/2

E 2 ~m(C–W)/2

ΔE= E 1 – E 2 = m(C+W)/2 – m(C–W)/2

ΔE~W×m

Where:

E 1 – the amount of free energy folded (absorbed) by the annihilation point from the front hemisphere of motion.

E 2 - the amount of free energy folded (absorbed) by the annihilation point from the rear hemisphere of motion.

ΔE is the difference between the amount of free energy folded (absorbed) from the front and rear hemispheres of motion of an elementary particle.

W – speed of movement of an elementary particle.

Here we see a continuous increase in the mass of energy condensation behind the annihilation point of a moving particle, as the speed of its translational motion increases.

In the structure of the atom, this will manifest itself in the fact that the energy density behind the structure of each subsequent atom will increase exponentially. The annihilation points hold each other with their force of attraction with an “iron grip”. At the same time, the growing repulsive force will increasingly deflect the paired structures of the atom from each other. So we get a flat – cascade construction of the atom.

The atom, in shape, should resemble the shape of a bowl, where the “bottom” is the structure of the helium atom. And the “edges” of the cup are the last period. Places of the “bends of the bowl”: second - third, fourth - fifth, sixth - seventh periods. These “bends” allow the formation of different periods with an equal number of paired structures

helium atom model

It is the flat-cascade structure of the atom and the ring arrangement of paired structures in it that determine the periodicity and row structure of the periodic system of Mendeleev’s chemical elements, the periodicity of the manifestation of similar chemical properties of atoms of the same row of the periodic table.

The flat-cascade structure of the atom gives rise to a single atomic space with a high free energy density.

• All pair structures of an atom are oriented in the direction of the center of the atom (or rather: in the direction of a point located on the geometric axis of the atom, in the direction of movement of the atom).
• All individual annihilation points are located along the rings of periods inside the atom.
• All individual concentrations of free energy are located behind their annihilation points.

The result: a single condensation of high-density free energy, the boundaries of which are the boundaries of the atom. These boundaries, as we understand, are the boundaries of the action of forces known in science as Yukawa forces.

The flat-cascade structure of the atom gives a redistribution of the zones of attractive and repulsive forces in a certain way. We observe a redistribution of zones of attractive and repulsive forces already in the pair structure:

The zone of action of the repulsive forces of a pair structure increases due to the zone of action of its attractive forces (compared to single elementary particles). The area of ​​action of gravity forces decreases accordingly. (The area of ​​action of the force of attraction decreases, but not the force itself). The flat-cascade structure of the atom gives us an even greater increase in the area of ​​action of the repulsive forces of the atom.

• With each new period, the zone of action of repulsive forces tends to the shape of a full ball.
• The area of ​​action of the forces of attraction will be a cone of ever-decreasing diameter

In the construction of a new period of the atom, one more pattern can be traced: all pair structures of the same period are located strictly symmetrically relative to the geometric center of the atom, regardless of the number of pair structures in the period.

Each new pair structure, joining, changes the location of all other pair structures of the period so that the distances between them in the period are always equal to each other. These distances decrease with the addition of the next pair structure. The incomplete external period of an atom of a chemical element makes it chemically active.

Distances between periods, much greater than the distances between paired particles within a period, make the periods relatively independent of each other.

Each period of the atom relates to all other periods and to the entire atom as an independent integral structure.

This determines that the chemical activity of an atom is almost 100% determined only by the last period of the atom. The completely filled last period gives us the maximum filled zone of the repulsive forces of the atom. The chemical activity of the atom is almost zero. An atom, like a ball, pushes other atoms away from itself. We see gas here. And not just any gas, but an inert gas.

The addition of the first pair structure of the new period changes this idyllic picture. The distribution of zones of action of repulsive and attractive forces changes in favor of attractive forces. The atom becomes chemically active. This is an alkali metal atom.

With the addition of each subsequent pair structure, the balance of the zones of distribution of attractive and repulsive forces of the atom changes: the zone of repulsive forces increases, the zone of attractive forces decreases. And each subsequent atom becomes a little less metal and a little more non-metal.

The flat-cascade shape of atoms, the redistribution of the zones of action of the forces of attraction and repulsion gives us the following: An atom of a chemical element, meeting another atom even on a collision course, necessarily falls into the zone of action of the repulsive forces of this atom. And it does not destroy itself and does not destroy this other atom.

All this leads us to a remarkable result: atoms of chemical elements, entering into compounds with each other, form three-dimensional structures of molecules. In contrast to the flat-cascade structure of atoms. A molecule is a stable three-dimensional structure of atoms.

Let's consider energy flows inside atoms and molecules.

First of all, we note that an elementary particle will absorb energy in cycles. That is: in the first half of the cycle, an elementary particle absorbs energy from the nearest space. Here a void is formed - a space without free energy.

In the second half of the cycle: energies from a more distant environment will immediately begin to fill the resulting void. That is, energy flows will appear in space directed towards the point of annihilation. The particle receives a positive forward momentum. And the bound energy inside the particle will begin to redistribute its density.

What interests us here?

Since the annihilation cycle is divided into two phases: the energy absorption phase and the energy movement phase (filling the void), the average speed of energy flows in the area of ​​the annihilation point will decrease, roughly speaking, by half.

And, what is extremely important:

A very important pattern appears in the construction of atoms, molecules, and physical bodies: The stability of all material structures, such as: pair structures - deuterium atoms, individual periods around atoms, atoms, molecules, physical bodies is ensured by the strict ordering of their annihilation processes.

Let's consider this.

1. Energy flows created by a pair structure. In a pair structure, elementary particles annihilate energy synchronously. Otherwise, elementary particles would “eat up” the energy condensation behind each other’s annihilation point. We obtain clear wave characteristics of the pair structure. In addition, we remind you that due to the cyclical nature of the annihilation processes, the average speed of energy flows here drops by half.
2. Energy flows inside an atom. The principle is the same: all pair structures of the same period must annihilate energy synchronously - in synchronous cycles. In the same way: annihilation processes inside the atom must be synchronized between periods. Any asynchrony leads to the destruction of the atom. Here the synchronicity may vary slightly. It can be assumed that periods in an atom annihilate energy sequentially, one after another, in a wave.
3. Energy flows inside a molecule, a physical body. The distances between atoms in the structure of a molecule are many times greater than the distances between periods within an atom. In addition, the molecule has a three-dimensional structure. Just like any physical body has a three-dimensional structure. It is clear that the synchronicity of annihilation processes here must be consistent. Directed from the periphery to the center, or vice versa: from the center to the periphery - count as you like.

The principle of synchronicity gives us two more laws:

• The speed of energy flows inside atoms, molecules, and physical bodies is significantly less than the speed constant of energy movement in the space of the universe. This pattern will help us understand (in article No. 7) the processes of electricity.
• The larger the structure we see (sequentially: elementary particle, atom, molecule, physical body), the longer the wavelength in its wave characteristics we will observe. This also applies to physical bodies: the more mass a physical body has, the longer the wavelength it has.