The fox shark is a fighting fox fish. Species: Alopias vulpinus = Common Sea Fox

The genus was first scientifically described by the British biologist Richard Thomas Lowe in 1841, based on a specimen caught off the coast of Madeira in the eastern Atlantic. However, Lowe's description was revised by further researchers, and until the 1940s the species was known by various names, until the capture of several individuals off the coast of Cuba and Venezuela prompted the restoration of the original scientific name.

Generic and specific names come from the Greek words. ἀλώπηξ - "fox" and lat. super- "above" and lat. ciliosus- "eyebrow", which is explained by the presence of obvious supraorbital depressions. These sharks were called fox because of the old belief that they are distinguished by cunning.

An allozyme analysis conducted in 1995 showed that the most closely related species of the bigeye thresher is the pelagic thresher, with which they form a single clade.

area

Bigeye fox sharks are common in tropical waters Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Ocean. In the western part of the Atlantic Ocean they are found from New York to Florida, the Bahamas, off the coast of Cuba, Venezuela and southern Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic, they are found off the coast of Portugal, Madeira, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Angola and in the Mediterranean Sea. In the western Indian Ocean, bigeye fox sharks are found off the coast of South Africa, Madagascar and in the Arabian Sea. In the Pacific, they inhabit the coastal waters of southern Japan, Taiwan, New Caledonia, northwestern Australia, New Zealand, east of Hawaii, southern California. In addition, they live in the Gulf of California and off the Galapagos Islands.

Bigeye thresher sharks are found both over the continental shelf and offshore. Sometimes they come close to the shore. Although they prefer temperatures between 16°C and 25°C, they are found at depths of up to 723 m, where the water temperature does not exceed 5°C. Little is known about the migrations made by bigeye sharks, but there is evidence of migrations made by two tagged sharks. In the first case, migration was carried out through the Gulf of Mexico for 60 days. The distance traveled by the shark in a straight line was 320 km. The depth at the starting point (central Gulf of Mexico) was over 3,000 m, and at the end point (150 km south of the Mississippi Delta) about 1,000 m. The second shark was tagged off the coast of Kona Coast, Hawaii. The tag was taken off the coast of French Frigate Shoals. The distance traveled in a straight line was 1125 km.

Description

The long, wide and pectoral fins taper to rounded tips, the caudal margin is slightly concave. The first dorsal fin is set back compared to other thresher sharks and is located closer to the base of the pelvic fins. The pelvic fins are about the same size as the first dorsal fin, and the males have thin, long pterygopodia. The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny. There are dorsal and ventral notches in the shape of a crescent in front of the caudal fin. There is a small ventral notch at the edge of the upper lobe. The lower lobe is short but well developed.

Intense purple or brown-purple color with a metallic sheen. After death, the color fades quickly and becomes a dull gray. The belly is creamy white. The white coloration does not extend to the base of the pectoral and ventral fins, which distinguishes pelagic thresher sharks from similar thresher sharks, which have a spot at the base of the pectoral fins.

Big-eyed fox sharks reach an average length of 3.3-4 m and a mass of 160 kg. The maximum recorded length and weight (4.9 m and 364 kg) had an individual caught near Tutukak, New Zealand, in February 1981 .

Biology

The size and position of the eyes of the bigeye sharks are adapted to detect the silhouettes of prey in low light conditions. Bigeye fox sharks belong to a small group of sharks that perform diurnal vertical migrations. During the day they spend at a depth of 300-500 m, below the thermocline, where the temperature ranges from 6 ° C to 12 ° C, and at night they rise to a depth of 100 m or less. These migrations are due to the fact that sharks hunt at night and hide at depth from predators during the day. During the day, sharks swim measuredly, while at night they make quick ascents and dives.

The existence of a muscle structure in bigeye sharks that allows them to retain the metabolic thermal energy of the body remains in question. In a 1971 study, swimming muscles were sampled from two bigeye sharks using a thermistor needle. Muscle tissue temperature was 1.8 °C and 4.3 °C higher than environment. However, an anatomical study conducted in 2005 found that while bigeye sharks have aerobic red muscle responsible for heat production in threshers, it is distributed along the sides and is located directly under the skin, and not deep in the body. In addition, there is no system of countercurrent blood vessels on the sides ( rete mirabile), allowing to reduce the loss of metabolic energy. Based on these two differences, the authors discussed previous data and concluded that it is likely that bigeye sharks are unable to maintain elevated body temperature. But they have an orbital rete mirabile which protects the eyes and brain from temperature fluctuations. During daily vertical migrations, temperature fluctuations surrounding water can reach 15-16 °C.

Nutrition

Bigeye fox sharks have larger teeth than other members of the genus. They prey on small schooling fish such as mackerel and herring, bottom fish such as hake, pelagic fish such as sawtooth and small marlin, Lycoteuthidae and Ommastrephidae squid, and possibly crabs. Like other fox sharks, before attacking, they circle around the school and compact it with tail strokes. Due to this hunting tactic, they are sometimes caught with their tails on longline hooks or entangled in nets. The shape of the eye sockets provides bigeye sharks with binocular vision in the upper direction, which allows them to better see the target. In the Mediterranean, they follow schools of mackerel tunas. Auxis rochei, probably following the largest accumulation of prey.

Life cycle

Reproduction in bigeye fox sharks is not seasonal. They reproduce by ovoviviparity. In litter 2, very rarely 3 or 4 newborns 1.35-1.4 m long. The exact duration of pregnancy is unknown. Fertilization and development of embryos occurs in utero. The embryo initially feeds on the yolk. After emptying the yolk sac, he begins to eat the egg capsules produced by the mother (intrauterine oophagia). The cannibalism characteristic of common sand sharks is not observed in pelagic thresher sharks. Outwardly, newborns are similar to adult sharks, but their head and eyes are proportionately larger. The inner walls of the oviduct are covered with a thin layer of epithelium from damage by sharp placoid scales of the embryo. This feature is not observed in other members of the fox shark genus.

Males mature at a length of 2.7-2.9 m, which corresponds to the age of 9-10 years, and females at a length of 3.3-3.6 m, which corresponds to the age of 12-14 years. The maximum recorded lifespan for males and females is 19 and 20 years, respectively. Presumably females produce only 20 sharks in their lifetime.

Human interaction

Despite its large size, the species is considered safe for humans. Divers rarely encounter bigeye sharks. The International Shark Attack File has not recorded a single attack by a bigeye shark on humans.

These sharks are of interest to sport anglers in the US, South Africa and New Zealand. They are commercially fished in the United States, Japan, Spain, Brazil, Uruguay, and Mexico and account for up to 10% of the total pelagic shark catch. Off the coast of Cuba, where they are caught by luring at night with the help, bigeye fox sharks make up to 20% of the prey with the help of longlines. In addition, they are important for industrial fisheries in Taiwan, where the annual catch is 220 tons. . The meat is marketed fresh, smoked and salted and dried, although it is not highly valued due to its soft, mushy texture. The skin is cured to make hides, vitamins are made from liver fat, and soup is made from the fins.

In US waters, they are caught as bycatch in longlines, trawls, and gillnets. In addition, sometimes they get caught in shark nets placed around the beaches off the coast of South Africa. Due to their low fecundity, members of the thresher shark genus are highly susceptible to overfishing. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has given this bigeye shark a Vulnerable status.

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Notes

1. in the FishBase database (Retrieved August 27, 2016).
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5. Life of animals. Volume 4. Lancelets. Cyclostomes. cartilaginous fish. bony fish/ ed. T. S. Rassa, ch. ed. V. E. Sokolov. - 2nd ed. - M .: Education, 1983. - S. 31. - 575 p.
6. Lowe, R.T.(1841). A paper from the Rev. R. T. Lowe, M. A., describing certain new species of Madeiran fishes, and containing additional information relating to those already described. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 8 : 36-39.
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8. Jensen, C.. Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved January 11, 2013. .
9. Eitner, B.J. Systematics of the Genus Alopias(Lamniformes: Alopiidae) with Evidence for the Existence of an Unrecognized Species // Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists). - 1995. - No. 3. - P. 562-571. -DOI:.
10. Compagno, L.J.V. Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalog of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). - Food and Agriculture Organization of the united Nations, 2002. - P. 83-85. - ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
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14. Cressey, R.(1964). "A new genus of copepods (Caligoida, Pandaridae) from a thresher shark in Madagascar". Cahiers O.R.S.T.O.M. Oceanographie 2 (6): 285-297.
15. Olson, P. D. and Caira, J. N. Two new species of Litobothrium Dailey, 1969 (Cestoda: Litobothriidea) from thresher sharks in the Gulf of California, Mexico, with redescriptions of two species in the genus" // Systematic Parasitology. - 2001. - Vol. 48, no. 3 . - P. 159-177. -DOI:.
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18. Chen, C. T., Liu, W. M. and Chang, Y. C. Reproductive biology of the bigeye thresher shark, Alopias superciliosus(Lowe, 1839) (Chondrichthyes: Alopiidae), in the northwestern Pacific (English) // Ichthyological Research. - 1997. - Vol. 44, no. 2-3. - P. 227-235. -DOI:.
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20. Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G. M., Clò, S., Clarke, S. C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V. 2009. Alopias superciliosus. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. . Downloaded on 10 January 2013.

An excerpt characterizing the Bigeye fox shark

Tears shone in my eyes... And I was absolutely not ashamed of it. I would give a lot to meet one of them alive! .. Especially Magdalene. What wondrous, ancient Magic burned in the soul of this amazing woman when she created her magical kingdom?! A kingdom in which Knowledge and Understanding ruled, and whose backbone was Love. Only not the love about which the “holy” church screamed, having worn out this wondrous word to the point that I didn’t want to hear it any longer, but that beautiful and pure, real and courageous, unique and amazing LOVE, with the name of which powers were born ... and with the name of which the ancient warriors rushed into battle... with the name of which a new life was born... with the name of which our world changed and became better... This Love was carried by Golden Mary. And it is this Mary that I would like to bow to... For everything that she carried, for her pure bright LIFE, for her courage and courage, and for Love.
But, unfortunately, it was impossible to do this... She lived centuries ago. And I couldn't be the one who knew her. An incredibly deep, bright sadness suddenly overwhelmed me, and bitter tears poured down in a stream...
- What are you, my friend!.. Other sorrows await you! Sever exclaimed in surprise. - Please, calm down...
He gently touched my hand and gradually the sadness disappeared. Only bitterness remained, as if I had lost something bright and dear ...
– You mustn't relax... War awaits you, Isidora.
– Tell me, Sever, was the teaching of the Cathars called the Teaching of Love because of Magdalene?
– Here you are not quite right, Isidora. The uninitiated called it the Teaching of Love. For those who understood, it carried a completely different meaning. Listen to the sound of words, Isidora: love sounds in French - amor (amour) - right? And now divide this word by separating the letter “a” from it ... It turns out a'mor (a "mort) - without death ... This is the true meaning of the teachings of Magdalene - the Teachings of the Immortals. As I told you before - everything it's simple, Isidora, if you only look and listen correctly... Well, for those who do not hear, let it remain the Teaching of Love... it is also beautiful.
I stood completely dumbfounded. The Teaching of the Immortals!.. Daaria... So that was the teaching of Radomir and Magdalena!.. The North surprised me many times, but never before had I felt so shocked!.. The Cathar teachings attracted me with their powerful, magic power, and I could not forgive myself for not talking about this with the North before.
- Tell me, Sever, is there anything left of the records of the Cathars? There must have been something left? Even if not the Perfect Ones themselves, then at least just students? I mean something about their real life and teachings?
– Unfortunately, no, Isidora. The Inquisition destroyed everything and everywhere. Her vassals, by order of the Pope, were even sent to other countries to destroy every manuscript, every remaining piece of birch bark that they could find ... We were looking for at least something, but we could not save anything.
Well, what about the people themselves? Could there be something left with people who would keep it through the centuries?
– I don’t know, Isidora... I think even if someone had some kind of record, it was changed over time. After all, it is human nature to reshape everything in its own way ... And especially without understanding. So it is unlikely that anything has been preserved as it was. It's a pity... True, we still have the diaries of Radomir and Magdalena, but that was before the creation of the Cathars. Though I don't think the doctrine has changed.
– Forgive me for my chaotic thoughts and questions, Sever. I see that I lost a lot by not coming to you. But still, I'm still alive. And while I breathe, I can still ask you, can't I? Can you tell me how Svetodar's life ended? Sorry for interrupting.
North smiled sincerely. He liked my impatience and my thirst to "find out in time". And he gladly continued.
After his return, Svetodar lived and taught in Occitania for only two years, Isidora. But these years became the most expensive and happiest years of his wandering life. His days, illuminated by the merry laughter of Beloyar, passed in his beloved Montsegur, surrounded by the Perfect Ones, to whom Svetodar honestly and sincerely tried to convey what the distant Wanderer had taught him for many years.
They gathered in the Temple of the Sun, which multiplied tenfold the Living Force they needed. And also protected them from unwanted "guests" when someone was going to secretly enter there, not wanting to appear openly.
The Temple of the Sun was called a tower specially built in Montsegur, which at certain times of the day let direct sunlight through the window, which made the Temple truly magical at that moment. And this tower also concentrated and strengthened energy, which for the Qatari working there at that moment eased the tension and did not require too much effort.

Soon, an unforeseen and rather funny incident occurred, after which the nearest Perfects (and then the rest of the Cathars) began to call Svetodar "fiery". And it began after Svetodar, having forgotten, completely revealed his high energy Essence to them during one of the usual classes ... As you know, all the Perfect Ones without exception were seers. And the appearance of the essence of Svetodar flaming with fire caused a real shock to the Perfect Ones... Thousands of questions poured down, many of which even Svetodar himself did not have answers. Probably only the Stranger could answer, but he was inaccessible and distant. Therefore, Svetodar was forced to somehow explain himself to his friends ... Whether he succeeded or not is unknown. Only from that very day did all the Cathars begin to call him the Fiery Teacher.
(The existence of the Fiery Teacher is indeed mentioned in some modern books about cathars, only, unfortunately, not about the one that was real ... Apparently, the North was right when he said that people, not understanding, remake everything in their own way .. As they say: “they heard the ringing, but they don’t know where it is”... For example, I found the memories of the “last cathar” Deod Roche, who says that a certain Steiner (?!) was the Fiery Teacher (?!)... Again, to the Pure and the Light One is forcibly “taken root” by the people of Israel .... which has never been among the real Qatar).
Two years have passed. Peace and tranquility reigned in the tired soul of Svetodar. Days ran after days, taking old sorrows farther and farther ... Baby Beloyar seemed to grow by leaps and bounds, becoming smarter and smarter, surpassing all his older friends in this, which greatly pleased grandfather Svetodar. But on one of these happy, calm days, Svetodar suddenly felt a strange, nagging anxiety... His Gift told him that trouble was knocking on his peaceful door... Nothing seemed to change, nothing happened. But Svetodar's anxiety grew, poisoning pleasant moments of complete peace.
Once, Svetodar was walking around the neighborhood with little Beloyar (whose worldly name was Frank) not far from the cave in which almost all of his family died. The weather was wonderful - the day was sunny and warm - and Svetodar's legs themselves carried him to visit the sad cave ... Little Beloyar, as always, plucked near the growing wild flowers, and the grandfather and great-great-grandson came to bow to the place of the dead.
Probably, someone once put a curse on this cave for his family, otherwise it was impossible to understand how they, so extraordinarily gifted, for some reason, suddenly completely lost their sensitivity, just getting into this cave, and like blind kittens , headed straight for someone's trap.
Cheerfully chirping his favorite song, Beloyar suddenly fell silent, as it always happened, as soon as he entered the familiar cave. The boy did not understand what made him behave that way, but as soon as they went inside, all his cheerful mood evaporated somewhere, and only sadness remained in his heart ...
“Tell me, grandfather, why was it always killed here?” This place is very sad, I "hear" it... Let's get out of here grandfather! I don't like it very much... It always smells of trouble here.
The kid timidly twitched his shoulders, as if, indeed, sensing some kind of trouble. Svetodar smiled sadly and hugged the boy tightly, he was about to go outside, when four strangers suddenly appeared at the entrance to the cave.
“You were not invited here, uninvited. This is a family sadness, and outsiders are not allowed to enter here. Leave in peace, - Svetodar said quietly. He immediately bitterly regretted that he had taken Beloyar with him. The kid frightened huddled up to his grandfather, apparently feeling bad.
“Well, this is just the right place!” one of the strangers laughed insolently. You don't have to look for anything...
They began to surround the unarmed couple, obviously trying not to get close yet.
- Well, servant of the Devil, show us your strength! - the "holy wars" braved. - What, your horned master does not help?
The strangers deliberately angered themselves, trying not to succumb to fear, because apparently they had heard enough about the incredible power of the Fiery Teacher.
With his left hand, Svetodar easily pushed the baby behind his back, and extended his right hand to those who came, as if blocking the entrance to the cave.
“I warned you, the rest is up to you…” he said sternly. "Go away and nothing bad will happen to you."
The four chuckled defiantly. One of them, the tallest, pulled out a narrow knife, brazenly brandishing it, went to Svetodar ... And then Beloyar, squeaking in fright, wriggled out of his grandfather's hands holding him, and darting like a bullet towards the man with the knife, began to beat painfully on his knees caught on I run like a heavy stone. The stranger roared in pain and, like a fly, threw the boy away from him. But the trouble was that the "comers" were still standing at the very entrance to the cave... And the stranger threw Beloyar exactly in the direction of the entrance... Shouting thinly, the boy rolled over his head and flew into the abyss like a light ball.. It took only a few short seconds, and Svetodar did not have time ... Blinded from pain, he extended his hand to the man who had hit Beloyar - he, without making a sound, flew a couple of steps in the air and crashed his head against the wall, with a heavy bag slid down onto a stone floor. His "partners", seeing such a sad end to their leader, retreated in a bunch into the inside of the cave. And then, Svetodar made a single mistake... Wanting to see if Beloyar was alive, he moved too close to the cliff and turned away from the killers only for a moment. Immediately, one of them, jumping up from behind with lightning, struck him in the back with a sharp kick with his foot ... Svetodar's body flew into the abyss after little Beloyar ... It was all over. There was nothing else to look at. Vile "little men", pushing each other, quickly got out of the cave...
Some time later, a blond little head appeared over the cliff at the entrance. The child carefully climbed out to the edge of the ledge, and when he saw that there was no one inside, he sobbed sadly ... Apparently, all the wild fear and resentment, and maybe bruises, poured out in a waterfall of tears, washing away the experience ... He cried bitterly and for a long time, himself saying to himself, angry and sorry, as if grandfather could hear ... as if he could return to save him ...
- I told you - this cave is evil! .. I told ... I told you! - convulsively sobbing, the kid lamented - Well, why didn’t you listen to me! And what should I do now?.. Where should I go now?..
Tears flowed down dirty cheeks in a burning stream, tearing apart a small heart... Beloyar didn't know if his beloved grandfather was still alive... He didn't know if they would come back evil people? He was just scared as hell. And there was no one to comfort him... no one to protect him...
And Svetodar lay motionless at the very bottom of a deep crack. Its wide open, clean Blue eyes Seeing nothing, they looked up at the sky. He went far, far away, where Magdalena was waiting for him... and his beloved father with kind Radan... and sister Vesta... and his gentle, affectionate Margarita with her daughter Maria... and unfamiliar granddaughter Tara... And that's all- all those who died long ago defending their native and beloved world from non-humans who called themselves humans...
And here, on the ground, in a lonely empty cave, on a round pebble, hunched over, a man was sitting... He looked quite small. And very scared. Bitterly, weeping hysterically, he furiously rubbed his evil tears with his fists and swore in his childish soul that such a day would come when he would grow up, and then he would certainly correct the “wrong” world of adults ... Make it joyful and good! This little man was Beloyar... a great descendant of Radomir and Magdalena. Small, lost in the world big people crying man...

Everything heard from the mouth of the North flooded into Once again my heart is sad... I asked myself again and again - are all these irreparable losses natural?.. Is there really no way to rid the world of evil spirits and malice?!. All this terrible machine of global killing made the blood run cold, leaving no hope of salvation. But at the same time, a powerful stream of life-giving force flowed from somewhere into my wounded soul, opening every cell in it, every breath to fight against traitors, cowards and scoundrels! .. With those who killed the pure and brave, without hesitation, by any means, if only to destroy everyone who could be dangerous for them ...
Tell me more, Sever! Tell me, please, about Qatar... How long did they live without their Guiding Star, without Magdalene?
But Sever suddenly became agitated for some reason and answered tensely:
– Forgive me, Isidora, but I think I will tell you all this later… I cannot stay here any longer. Please hold on my friend. Whatever happens, try to be strong...
And, softly melting, he left with a “breath” ...
And Caraffa was already standing on the threshold again.
- Well, Isidora, have you thought of something more sensible? - without saying hello, Caraffa began. – I really hope that this week will bring you to your senses and I will not have to resort to the most extreme measures. After all, I told you quite sincerely - I do not want to harm your beautiful daughter, rather the opposite. I would be glad if Anna continued to study and learn new things. She is still too quick-tempered in her actions and categorical in her judgments, but she has a huge potential. One can only imagine what she would be capable of if she allowed him to open up correctly! .. How do you look at this, Isidora? All I need for this is your consent. And then you will be fine again.
“Except for the death of my husband and father, isn’t it, Your Holiness?” I asked bitterly.
– Well, it was an unforeseen complication (!..). And you still have Anna, don't forget that!
– And why should I have someone to “remain”, Your Holiness? .. I had a wonderful family, which I loved very much, and which was everything for me in the world! But you destroyed it… just because of an “unforeseen complication”, as you just put it!.. Do living people really have no meaning for you?!
Caraffa relaxed into a chair and calmly said:
“People interest me only as much as they are obedient to our holy church. Or how extraordinary and unusual their minds are. But these come across, unfortunately, very rarely. The usual crowd does not interest me at all! This is a bunch of little-thinking meat, which is no longer suitable for anything except for the fulfillment of someone else's will and other people's orders, because their brains are not able to comprehend even the most primitive truth.
Even knowing Karaffa, I felt my head spinning with excitement ... How could it be possible to live, thinking such a thing ?!.
– Well, what about the gifted ones?.. You are afraid of them, Your Holiness, aren’t you? Otherwise, you would not have killed them so brutally. Tell me, if you still burn them at the end, then why is it so inhumane to torture them even before they climb the fire? Is it really not enough for you that atrocity that you create by burning these unfortunate people alive? ..