The strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the mobility of the nervous system. Temperament as a manifestation of the properties of the nervous system. Temperament as a manifestation of the elements

Higher nervous activity is a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, as well as higher mental functions that ensure adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions. For the first time, the assumption about the reflex nature of the activity of the higher parts of the brain was made by I.M. Sechenov, which made it possible to extend the reflex principle to human mental activity. The ideas of I.M. Sechenov received experimental confirmation in the works of I.P. Pavlov, who developed a method for objective assessment of the functions of the higher parts of the brain - the method of conditioned reflexes.

I.P. Pavlov showed that all reflex reactions can be divided into two groups: unconditional and conditional.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY.

Unconditioned reflexes : 1. Congenital, hereditary reactions, most of them begin to function immediately after birth. 2. They are specific, i.e. characteristic of all representatives of this species. 3. Permanent and maintained throughout life. 4. Carried out by the lower parts of the central nervous system (subcortical nuclei, brain stem, spinal cord). 5. They arise in response to adequate stimulation acting on a specific receptive field.

Conditioned reflexes: 1. Reactions acquired in the process of individual life. 2. Individual. 3. Impermanent - they can appear and disappear. 4. They are primarily a function of the cerebral cortex. 5. Occurs in response to any stimuli acting on different receptive fields.

Unconditioned reflexes can be simple or complex. Complex innate unconditional reflex reactions are called instincts. Their characteristic feature is the chain nature of the reactions.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, individual behavioral characteristics and the dynamics of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition have been established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) balance of excitation and inhibition processes,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Based on these basic features, I.P. Pavlov, as a result of his research using the method of conditioned reflexes, came to the definition of four main types of the nervous system.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished. The classification of types of higher nervous activity is presented in Figure 1.

Weak type. Representatives of a weak type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli, because their processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong unbalanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system, since the property of nervous processes is encoded in the gene of a typical human apparatus and is therefore inherited - transmitted from parents to descendants. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditional connections can be formed, i.e., during the course of life, these conditional connections will be formed differently in different people, influencing the individual nature of behavior and activity. This is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself.

The type of HNA (higher nervous activity) is the physiological foundation for the formation of temperament, which demonstrates the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Rice. 2. Scheme of types of GNI according to I.V. Pavlov.

Types of higher nervous activity and their relationship with temperament.

I.P. Pavlov proposed to distinguish human types of higher nervous activity based on the degree of development of the first and second signaling systems. He highlighted:

1. Artistic type, which is characterized by specific thinking, the predominance of the first signaling system, that is, sensory perception of reality. This type includes people with well-developed sensory perception, expressed affects on everything that happens. They are inclined to professions of the sensory-emotional circle. This type is often noted among actors, artists, and musicians. During a neurotic breakdown, people of the artistic type tend to give reactions of the hysterical circle.

2. Thinking type when abstraction from reality and abstract thinking are well expressed. This type includes individuals with well-developed abstract thinking and abstract concepts. They are inclined to study mathematics and theoretical sciences. With a neurotic breakdown, they are prone to a psychasthenic type of reaction.

3. Medium type when there is no predominance of one way of thinking or another. Pavlov believed that extreme types are rare, and most people belong to the average type, that is, this classification also does not reflect the entire variety of forms of human GNI.

Many scientists note that the significance of I.P. Pavlov’s work on the problem of temperaments lies primarily in elucidating the role of the properties of the nervous system as the primary and deepest parameters of the psychological organization of the individual.

Types of temperaments according to Hippocrates:

Melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore in stressful situations (exams, competitions, danger, etc. .) the results of a melancholic person’s activity may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required). A minor reason can cause resentment and tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give in to his experiences, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, and may experience neurotic disorders. However, having a highly sensitive nervous system, they often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

Sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, has a quick reaction speed, his actions are thoughtful, he is cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, and high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, he easily gets along with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affections. He is a productive worker, but only when there are a lot of interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, and distracted. In a stressful situation, he exhibits a “lion reaction,” i.e., he actively, thoughtfully defends himself and fights to normalize the situation.

Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger or cheer); has a high performance capacity, resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is unable to give up acquired skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routine, work, friends, and adapts to new conditions with difficulty and slowly. The mood is stable and even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.

Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down or restrain himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, hot temper, unbridledness, lack of restraint. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical change in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are depleted, he works himself to the point that everything is unbearable for him. An irritated state appears, a bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of uplifting mood and energy with negative cycles of decline and depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, and an increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.

Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifesting itself in the dynamic characteristics of the human psyche and behavior, each type of temperament can have advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing living conditions, have increased performance, especially in the initial period of work, but in the end they reduce performance due to rapid fatigue and loss of interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a melancholic type of temperament are distinguished by their slow entry into work, but also by greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, rather than at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work of sanguine people and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences relate mainly only to the dynamics of work in different periods.

The choleric temperament has the advantage that it allows one to concentrate significant efforts in a short period of time. But when working for a long time, a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the contrary, are not able to quickly gather and concentrate their efforts, but in return they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of person’s temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of the activity.

Hippocrates' classification of temperaments refers to humoral theories. Later, this line was proposed by the German philosopher I. Kant, who also considered blood characteristics to be the natural basis of temperament.

The characteristics of a person’s mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person’s individual life, in the process of upbringing. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to a person’s behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person, i.e. determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine the overall behavior, actions of a person, his beliefs, moral principles, since they form in the process of ontogenesis (individual development) on the basis of consciousness.

PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The properties of the nervous processes underlying the types of GNI determine the properties of the nervous system. These are her stable qualities that are innate. These properties include:

1. The strength of the nervous system in relation to excitation, i.e. its ability to withstand intense and frequently repeated loads for a long time without detecting excessive braking.

2. The strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition, i.e. ability to withstand prolonged and frequently repeated inhibitory influences.

3. Balance of the nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition, which is manifested in the equal reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory influences.

4. Lability (mobility) of the nervous system, assessed by the speed of onset and cessation of the nervous process of excitation or inhibition.

The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

Currently, differential psychology has developed a 12-dimensional classification of the properties of the human nervous system (V.D. Nebylitsyn). It includes 8 primary properties (strength, mobility, dynamism and lability in relation to excitation and inhibition) and four secondary properties (balance in these basic properties). It is shown that these properties can relate to the entire nervous system (its general properties) and to individual analyzers (partial properties).

Classification of the properties of the nervous system according to V.D. Nebylitsyn:

The strength of the nervous system is understood as endurance, the performance of nerve cells, resistance either to the long-term action of a stimulus that produces concentrated excitation, concentrated in the same nerve centers and accumulating in them, or to the short-term action of super-strong stimuli. The weaker the nervous system, the sooner the nerve centers enter a state of fatigue and protective inhibition;

The dynamism of the nervous system is the speed of formation of conditioned reflexes or the ability of the nervous system to learn in the broad sense of the word. The main content of dynamism is the ease and speed with which nervous processes are generated in brain structures during the formation of excitatory and inhibitory conditioned reflexes;

Lability, a property of the nervous system associated with the speed of occurrence, course and termination of the nervous process;

The mobility of the nervous system, the speed of movement, the spread of nervous processes, their irradiation and concentration, as well as mutual transformation.

1. General, or systemic, properties that cover the entire human brain and characterize the dynamics of its work as a whole.

2. Complex properties, manifested in the peculiarities of the work of individual “blocks” of the brain (hemispheres, frontal lobes, analyzers, anatomically and functionally separated subcortical structures, etc.).

3. The simplest, or elementary, properties correlated with the work of individual neurons.

As B.M. wrote Teplev, the properties of the nervous system “form the soil on which some forms of behavior are easier to form, while others are more difficult.”

For example, in monotonous work, the best results are shown by people with a weak type of nervous system, and when moving to work associated with large and unexpected loads, on the contrary, people with a strong nervous system.

A person’s complex of individual-typological properties of his nervous system primarily determines temperament, on which the individual style of activity further depends.

The type of higher nervous activity is based on the individual characteristics of its occurrence in two areas: and inhibition. According to the views of I.P. Pavlov, the main properties of nervous processes are three:

1) The strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition (related to the performance of nerve cells).

The strength of excitation processes characterized by: high performance; initiative; determination; courage; courage; persistence in overcoming life's difficulties; the ability to solve complex situations without disruption of nervous activity.

Strength of braking processes characterized by: self-control; patience; high ability to concentrate, to differentiate the permissible, possible from the unacceptable and impossible.

Weakness of nervous processes characterized by: low performance; increased fatigue; weak endurance; indecision in difficult situations, and the rapid onset of neurogenic breakdowns; the desire to avoid difficulties, obstacles, active work and tension; low initiative; lack of persistence.

2) (related to the ratio of excitation and inhibition processes in terms of their strength).

Balance of nervous processes characterized by: even attitude towards people; restraint; ability to self-control, concentration, expectation; the ability to fall asleep easily and quickly; smooth speech, with correct and expressive intonation.

Imbalance with a predominance of excitement characterized by: increased impressionability; nervousness, and in the strong type this is expressed in a tendency to scream, in the weak type - in withdrawal, in tearfulness; restless with frequent nightmare content; fast speech (patter).

3) Mobility of excitation and inhibition processes (associated with the ability of nervous processes to replace each other).

Mobility of nervous processes characterized by: a fairly easy and quick transition to a new business; rapid transformation of habits and skills; ease of falling asleep and waking up.

Inertness of nervous processes characterized by: difficulty transitioning to a new business and changing habits and skills; difficulty waking up; calm with dreams without nightmares; slow speech.

Based on every possible combination of the three basic properties of nervous processes, a wide variety is formed. According to the classification of I.P. Pavlov, there are four main types of GNI , differing in resistance to neurotic factors and adaptive properties.

1) Strong, unbalanced , ("unrestrained") type characterized by strong processes of excitation that prevail over inhibition. This is a passionate person; with a high level of activity; vigorous; hot-tempered; irritable; with strong, quickly arising, clearly reflected in speech, gestures, facial expressions.

2) Strong, balanced, agile (labile or living) type is different strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance and the ability to easily replace one process with another. He is a man of great self-control; decisive; overcoming difficulties; vigorous; able to quickly navigate a new environment; mobile; impressionable; with a bright expression and easy changeability.

3) Strong, balanced, inert (calm) type characterized strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance, but low mobility of nervous processes. This is a very efficient person; able to restrain himself; calm; slow; with weak expression of feelings; difficulty switching from one type of activity to another; does not like to change his habits.

4) Weak type is different weak excitation processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. This is a weak-willed man; sad; dreary; with high emotional vulnerability; suspicious; prone to dark thoughts; with a depressed mood; closed; timid; easily susceptible to other people's influence.

These types of higher nervous activity correspond to the temperaments described by Hippocrates:

However, in life such “pure” ones are rare; usually the combination of properties is more diverse. I.P. Pavlov also wrote that between these main types there are “intermediate, transitional types and they must be known in order to navigate human behavior.”

Along with the indicated types of GNI common to humans and animals, I.P. Pavlov specifically identified human types (particular types) based on the different ratio of the first and second signaling systems:

1. Art type characterized by a slight predominance of the first signaling system over the second. Representatives of this type are characterized by an objective, figurative perception of the surrounding world, operating in the process with sensory images.

2. Thinking type characterized by the predominance of the second signaling system over the first. This type is characterized by a pronounced ability to abstract from reality and to perform subtle analysis; operating with abstract symbols in the process of thinking.

3.Medium type characterized by the balance of signaling systems. Most people belong to this type; they are characterized by both figurative and speculative conclusions.

This classification reflects the nature of the functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain and the features of their interaction.

The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity is important for understanding the patterns of formation of such important psychological characteristics of the individual as temperament and character. The type of GNI is the physiological basis of temperament. However, the type of GNI can be reduced to temperament, because the type of GNI is a physiological property of a person, and temperament is a psychological property of a person and is related to the dynamic side of a person’s mental activity. It should be remembered that temperament does not characterize the content side of a person (a person’s worldview, beliefs, views, interests, etc.). Features of the type of GNI and the prevailing temperament form the natural basis of the individual’s uniqueness.

LABORATORY WORK No. 1

Diagnosis of temperament using motor test methods

1. "Tapping test"

Target: determination of the strength/weakness of the nervous system.

Material and equipment: forms, which are tables, pencil, stopwatch.

Research procedure: The research takes place in two stages. It is carried out in pairs by the subject and the experimenter. The subject is asked about his health and asked to sit comfortably at a well-lit table, take a form and a pencil.

First stage. The test taker is asked to mark points on the test form with a pencil using his dominant (usually right) hand. The time for completing tasks is fixed.

Instructions: " At my signal, start marking dots with a pencil in each square of this form. Try to place as many dots as possible and move from one square to another only at my command and only in a clockwise direction. Now take a pencil in your right hand and at the signal “Start!” put dots."

After checking the correct understanding of the instructions, the experimenter gives the signal “Start!” and every 5 seconds commands: “Move to another square!” After 5 seconds of work in the sixth square, he says “Stop!”

Second phase. The second stage begins after the first after reading the instructions with the suggestion to take the pencil in your non-dominant (left) hand and put dots on the new form.

The instructions and procedure for conducting the study at the second stage are the same as at the first.

Test form

Note: The size of the test form is 6x9cm. The size of one cell is 3x3 cm.

Processing the results:

The purpose of processing the results is to determine the nature of the subject’s performance during the execution of the tapping test task. To do this, you first need to count the number of dots placed by the subject every 5 seconds in the squares of the first and second forms.

Then you need to build performance graphs separately for the right and left hands. To do this, five-second time intervals must be plotted on the abscissa axis, and the number of points in each square must be plotted on the ordinate axis.

Analysis of results. The strength of the nervous system is diagnosed based on the analysis of the performance graph according to the shape of the curve according to the criteria below. The types of dynamics of the maximum rate of movement are illustrated by graphs (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Graphs: a – convex type; b – smooth type; c – descending type; d – intermediate and concave types. Horizontal line – a line marking the level of the initial pace of work in the first 5 seconds.

Performance schedule according to kind of convex: the rate of the subject’s performance increases in the first 10-15 seconds of work, and subsequently by 25-30 seconds it can decrease below the initial level. The test subject's nervous system type is strong.

Performance schedule according to sort of smooth, the maximum pace is maintained by the subject at approximately the same level throughout the entire work time. The subject's nervous system type is of average strength.

Performance schedule according to top-down type: the maximum pace decreases from the second 5 second period of time and remains at a reduced level throughout the rest of the work. This indicates a weakness in the type of nervous system of the subject.

Performance schedule according to intermediate type; the pace of work decreases in this case after the first 10-14 seconds. The type of nervous system in this case is medium-weak.

Performance schedule according to kind of concave: an initial decrease in maximum tempo is then followed by a short increase in tempo to the initial level. Due to the ability for short-term mobilization, such subjects also belong to the group of people with a moderately weak type of nervous system.

When analyzing the results, first compare the performance graphs of the left and right hands. In most cases they are the same in nature. For right-handers, the performance of the right hand is higher than that of left-handers, and for left-handers it is vice versa. In case of significant discrepancies between the graphs, it is advisable to repeat the experiments at certain intervals.

Methodology “Determination of the balance of excitation and inhibition processes in the nervous system”

Target: determination of the balance of nervous processes based on psychomotor indicators.

Material and equipment: A piece of checkered paper, a simple pencil or pen.

Procedure:

Instructions:

“Place a piece of squared paper in front of you (you can hold it with your left hand). Touching the paper only with the tip of a pencil or pen and holding your hand up, draw 3 lines of horizontal lines. The lines should be equal to one centimeter, the gap between the lines should also be equal to one centimeter. Try to complete the task clearly and accurately, without rushing and trying. Draw 3 lines of dashes. Immediately after completing the task, close your eyes and repeat the experiment with your eyes closed, trying to maintain the same sizes of lines and spaces. Draw 3 lines. Remember! The hand should not have support until the end of the experience.”

Analysis and interpretation of results.

Express analysis:

If in a series without vision control (with eyes closed) the lines tend to lengthen and the spaces shorten, the nervous system (NS) is unbalanced towards excitation. If the lines shorten and the spaces lengthen, the NS is unbalanced towards inhibition. If the spaces and lines are approximately equal, then the NS is balanced.

Complete analysis procedure:

When processing the results, it is necessary to sum the length (in mm) of all segments (å1) of the test with eyes closed and the sum of all intervals (å2).

The result is calculated using the formula: K = å1 / å2.

The resulting value corresponds to the norm:

K = 1±0.2 – balanced NS;

K > 1.3 – unbalanced NS according to the type of excitation;

K< 0,8 – не уравновешенная НС по типу торможения.

Lachins motor test"

Target: study of the rigidity/plasticity of the nervous system.

Material and equipment: sheet of paper, stopwatch, pen.

Procedure: The study can be carried out individually or in a group. The experimenter reads out the instructions and answers the subjects’ questions.

Instructions:

“Your task is that for a certain time you will write the phrase “the snow has already melted in the field” as quickly as possible, in the way specified by the experimenter (4 ways). In each method you will work for 1 minute 30 seconds, then rest for 30 seconds.

Method 1: write the phrase in normal handwriting, all letters are small, lowercase, each phrase is written on a new line: the snow was already melting in the field;

Method 2: all letters are printed in capitals: IN THE FIELD THE SNOW WAS ALREADY MELTING;

Method 3: one letter is small, lowercase, and the second is capital printed: B P ABOUT l E at AND T A I L With N e D. You can start writing with any letter.

4. method: all letters are small, lowercase, written in normal handwriting, but each letter must be written 2 times: vv ppoolley uuzh ttaayayall ssnneegg.”

Note:

When reading the instructions, the experimenter clearly demonstrates how to write words.

Processing the results.

It is necessary to calculate the rigidity-plasticity coefficient (K):

K = (∑ 2+3+4 / 3) / ∑ 1,

Where ∑ 2+3+4 – sum of letters 2, 3,4 series;

∑ 1 - the sum of the letters of the first series.

Interpretation and analysis of results.

The resulting coefficient value correlates with the standard data:

0.5-0.7 – average value, none of the qualities is clearly expressed, mixed type;

TO< 0,5 – характерна ригидность;

K > 0.7 – plasticity is characteristic.

Character formation begins in early childhood. Already at preschool age, the first contours of character are outlined, a habitual pattern of behavior, and certain attitudes toward reality begin to take shape. Manifestations of collectivism, perseverance, endurance, and courage in preschool age are formed primarily in play, especially in collective story games with rules.

The simplest types of work available to a preschooler are of great importance. By performing some simple duties, the child learns to respect and love work, and to feel responsible for the task assigned. Under the influence of the demands of parents and educators, their personal example, the child gradually develops ideas about what is possible and what is not, and this begins to determine his behavior, lays the foundations for a sense of duty, discipline, and endurance; The child learns to evaluate his own behavior.

When you enter school, a new stage in character formation begins. For the first time, the child is faced with a number of strict rules and school responsibilities that determine all his behavior at school, at home, and in public places.

These rules and responsibilities develop the student’s organization, systematicity, purposefulness, perseverance, accuracy, discipline, and hard work. The school community plays an extremely important role in character formation. At school, the child enters into new relationships with teachers, into relationships of community and mutual assistance with comrades. He develops a sense of duty and responsibility to the team of his class, school, a sense of camaraderie, and collectivism. Character traits develop especially intensively in adolescents. A teenager participates in the lives of adults to a much greater extent than a junior schoolchild, and higher demands are placed on him. A teenager in his educational and social activities begins to be much more guided by the motives of public order - a sense of duty and responsibility to the team, a desire to maintain the honor of the school and class.

Upbringing has a decisive influence on a child's character. There are no children whose character cannot be re-educated and in whom certain positive qualities cannot be instilled, even by eliminating the negative traits that seem to have already taken root in them.

What are the ways to develop character?


A necessary condition for character education is the formation of a worldview, beliefs, and ideals. Worldview determines a person’s orientation, his life goals, aspirations; moral principles that guide people in their actions flow from the worldview. The task of forming a worldview and beliefs must be solved in conjunction with the education of certain forms of behavior in which the system of a person’s relationship to reality could be embodied. Therefore, in order to cultivate socially valuable character traits, it is necessary to organize the child’s play, learning, and work activities in such a way that he could accumulate experience in correct behavior.

In the process of character formation, it is necessary to consolidate not only a certain form of behavior, but also the corresponding motive for this behavior, but also the corresponding motive for this behavior, placing children in such conditions that their practical activities correspond to their ideological upbringing, so that they apply in practice the acquired principles of behavior. If the conditions in which the child lived and acted did not require him, for example, to show restraint or initiative, then the corresponding character traits would not be developed in him, no matter how high moral ideas were instilled in him verbally. It is impossible to raise a courageous person if you do not put him in such conditions when he could and should show courage. Education that removes all difficulties in a child's life can never create a strong character.

The most important means of character development is work. In serious and socially significant work associated with overcoming difficulties, the best character traits are cultivated - determination, collectivism, perseverance. The most important condition for the correct organization of educational activities is the close coordination of the educational work of the school with the corresponding influences of the family.

Literature and art influence character development. Images of literary heroes and their behavior often serve as a kind of model for a schoolchild with which he compares his behavior.

Character development is also influenced by the personal example of the educator, be it parents or teachers. What teachers do often has a much greater impact on a child's life than what they say. How a teacher approaches his work, how he follows social norms of behavior, whether he controls himself and his feelings, what is his style of work - all this is of great importance for developing the character of children.

An important role in the formation of character is played by the living word of the teacher, educator, with whom he addresses the child. Ethical or moral conversations, in particular, occupy a significant place. Their goal is to form correct moral ideas and concepts in children. For older schoolchildren, one of the ways to develop character is self-education. However, even in younger schoolchildren, the teacher must instill the desire to overcome certain shortcomings, undesirable habits, and develop useful habits. The need for an individual approach in character education is especially important.

An individual approach requires the selection and implementation of educational activities that would correspond to the characteristics of the student’s personality and the state in which he is currently located.

It is absolutely necessary to take into account the motives of actions, since differences in motives also determine differences in educational activities that must be carried out by the teacher in response to a particular act of the student. An individual approach requires reliance on the positive that each child already has in the area of ​​his interests, relationships with people, with certain types of activities, etc. By fully developing existing valuable traits and encouraging positive actions, the teacher can more easily achieve overcoming negative traits character in children.

In order to cultivate a student’s character, taking into account his individual characteristics, one should know them well, that is, comprehensively and deeply study the student’s individuality. Studying a child is a relatively long process. Only a good knowledge of the student will make it possible to outline individual measures for his further education or re-education and will lead to the desired results.

When meeting students for the first time at the very beginning of the first year of study, the teacher must carefully observe them, talk with parents about the conditions and some features of the child’s development, about the manifestations of his character. Based on observations and conversations, it is necessary to draw up a specific program for developing the child’s character, taking into account his individual characteristics.

Physiological basis of temperament

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, individual behavioral characteristics and the dynamics of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition were established:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
2) balance of excitation and inhibition processes,
3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to tolerate long-term or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.

The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. For some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while for others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the speed of alternation of processes of excitation and inhibition, the speed of their occurrence and cessation (when living conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of formation of new conditioned connections, the development and changes in the dynamic stereotype.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type. Representatives of a weak type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. The processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., during the course of life, these conditioned connections will be formed differently in different people: this is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself. Temperament is a manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

The characteristics of a person’s mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person’s individual life, in the process of upbringing. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to a person’s behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person - it determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

This approach, not limited to fixing the statistical relationship between certain signs of body structure and psychological characteristics, seeks to reveal the physiological mechanisms that determine the properties of temperament. For this purpose, the specifics of the structure and functioning of the nervous system are first studied. Psychophysiological direction that explains the properties of temperament features of the functioning of the central nervous system and characterizing higher nervous activity, is represented by the research of I. P. Pavlov, B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, E. A. Golubeva, V. S. Merlin, P. V. Simonov and their employees.

Typology of higher nervous activity according to I. P. Pavlov

The first step towards finding connections between the functioning of the nervous system and temperament was functional typology of higher nervous activity, developed by I.P. Pavlov (see also Chapter 3). In Pavlov's scientific school, the natural prerequisites for individual differences were studied by indirect (i.e., indirect) measurement of the properties of the nervous system using motor, secretory and sensory techniques. Let us remember that the subjects in Pavlov's laboratory were dogs. Based on the nature of their reactions to unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, three basic properties of nervous processes were identified (Pavlov identified them with the general properties of the nervous system): "strength - weakness", "inertia – mobility”, “balance – imbalance of the processes of excitation and inhibition”. Accordingly, imbalance (imbalance) of nervous processes was observed in two variants - with a predominance of the excitation process or with a predominance of the inhibition process.

Strong type of nervous system according to Pavlov, it manifested itself in high performance, endurance, resistance to interference, and the ability to withstand prolonged stress against a background of high activity. Weak type of nervous system characterized by high fatigue, impressionability, low endurance, and low activity. The property of mobility/inertia of the nervous system was determined by the speed of reaction occurrence, the speed of nervous processes and changes in the processes of inhibition and excitation, the vivacity of response to an external stimulus (“resourcefulness”), the ability to adapt to new conditions and types of activities, and the speed of motor acts. Unbalanced type of nervous system with a predominance of excitation characterized by restlessness, fussiness, lack of concentration, lack of concentration, violent emotional reactions (emotional outbursts). An unbalanced type of nervous system with a predominance of inhibition manifested itself in calmness, thoroughness, unhurriedness, and the protracted nature of emotional experiences.

But how are the general properties of the nervous system related to human behavior in real life situations? What can we say about a person, having established, for example, that he has a strong, unbalanced inert nervous system towards excitation? How will he behave if, for example, he is pushed on a tram? Firstly, it is very likely that he simply will not notice this incident, since his sensitivity threshold is relatively high. Secondly, his reaction will be intense but slow. Most likely, he will think about what happened even after his offender leaves the carriage. Let's not forget that temperament determines only the form of mental experiences and behavioral reactions, but not their content, therefore the specific actions of our hypothetical sufferer (whether he will insult his fellow traveler or just scream loudly, whether he will take out his irritation on his family or try to distract himself from gloomy thoughts) depends not on the properties of temperament, but on personal factors.

As a result of the combination of the selected properties, it was hypothetically possible to describe 24 types of temperament. However, in the actual behavior of animals, only four main types of temperament were clearly distinguished, close to those observed by Hippocrates (see Chapter 2). The combination of two properties of the nervous system - strength and imbalance with a predominance of excitation - corresponds to choleric temperament (“excitable unrestrained type”), a combination of three properties of the nervous system – sanguine (strong, balanced, agile) and phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert). A weak type of nervous system determines melancholic temperament (within the type of melancholic, differences in other properties of the nervous system are not obvious). In a comic form, the differences in the behavior of carriers of these types of temperaments who find themselves in a similar situation can be seen in Fig. 10.6.

Rice. 10.6.

Later, Pavlov supplemented his typology, pointing out the existence of properties inherent only to humans - the predominance of the first signal system (concrete-figurative) or the second signal system (speech, abstract-generalized), and identified "specially human" types - "artistic" and "mental" .

At the time when I.P. Pavlov conducted his experiments, there were no sophisticated methods for studying the activity of brain structures. Despite this, his ideas laid the foundations for the modern psychophysiological approach to the study of temperament. As the American researcher R. D. Douglas said about Pavlov’s work: “I. P. Pavlov was forced to make a decision about the probable place of excitation and inhibition and their mechanisms at a time when the basic sciences of the brain were experiencing their “Stone Age” ... No one had the slightest idea about the physical nature of braking."

Studying the typology of the properties of the nervous system at the school of B. M. Teplov - V. D. Nebylitsyn

In the second half of the 20th century. the development of electrophysiological and neurophysiological methods made it possible to combine Pavlov's ideas with modern data on the functioning of the brain (see Chapter 3). The systematic application of EEG methods to study the differences in typological properties of the nervous system was carried out at the Teplov-Nebylitsyn school.

To draw conclusions about the general properties of the nervous system, many indicators of bioelectrical activity of the brain were used, which reveal significant individual differences and which correlate with the observed dynamic features of behavior. Thus, recording the spontaneous rhythms of the human brain at rest (background activity in the absence of external stimulation) allows us to compare the activity of rhythms of different frequencies: theta, delta, alpha, beta 1 and beta 2. The more rhythms of higher frequencies are represented in the background EEG, the higher the initial activity of brain structures is for a given person. The stability of the background EEG is an indicator of the strength of the nervous system. The characteristics of the bioelectric response to the presentation of a new stimulus indicate a balance of nervous processes (predominance of excitation or inhibition). Inertia is determined by the rate of emergence and decay of the EEG and GSR components of the orienting reflex, as well as the severity of EEG frequency changes. The tempo characteristics of the brain are diagnosed by the time of response to the stimulus. To do this, the time between the presentation of a stimulus (auditory or visual) and the appearance of changes in the EEG (latent periods of evoked potentials) is measured. An important indicator of the inertia of nervous processes is a test (physiological test) for critical flicker fusion frequency (KChSM). If a luminous dot is blinking on the screen in front of the subject, then by increasing the frequency of its blinking (decreasing the interval between flashes), you can obtain the effect of perceiving the dot as constantly glowing. The more inert the nervous processes are, the lower the frequency of blinking of the dot on the screen this effect is achieved. A test is also used to impose the rhythms of the brain. The subject is presented with visual or auditory stimuli at a certain frequency; the frequency changes during the experiment. With the help of EEG, the reaction of the assimilation of rhythms by brain structures is recorded. An indicator of the degree of dynamism of the nervous system is the magnitude of the frequency of external influences in response to which maximum synchronization of brain rhythms is recorded. Individual samples were used to assess the sensitivity of the analyzers, and the values ​​of absolute and differential thresholds were measured (see subparagraph 7.1.2).

New technical capabilities for analyzing brain activity made it possible to clarify I. P. Pavlov’s ideas about the presence of three main properties of the nervous system. The “mobility-inertia” parameter proposed by Pavlov in the Teplov-Nebylitsyn school was divided into two different properties: actually mobility (the ability of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition to replace each other - a classic “remake” of a skill) and lability (rate of emergence and cessation of nervous processes). In turn, the “strength - weakness” parameter turned out to be derived from the sensitivity of the analyzers (determined by the value of sensory thresholds) and endurance to stress (work capacity and the development of fatigue).

Let us draw attention to the fact that all the tests performed by the subjects in this series of studies involved an analysis of the characteristics of the processing of sensory information (visual or auditory stimuli), which is carried out by the information block of the brain. At the same time, two other morphofunctional structures remained out of consideration - the energy and regulatory blocks of the brain (A. R. Luria, 1973). The results of physiological tests showed heterogeneity in the characteristics of the functioning of these brain structures. In connection with this, a separation was introduced between the particular (partial) properties of the nervous system, determined by the characteristics of the analyzer systems, and the general properties of the nervous system (“super-analyzer” characteristics). “These structures constitute the substrate of such global general physiological and general personal functions as motivation, needs and emotions, directed attention, programming of actions and movements, intellectual planning and evaluation of results, etc. It is natural to assume that the properties of these particular brain structures are the determinants of individual characteristics of the psyche and therefore can rightfully be considered as general properties of the nervous system,” believed V.D. Nebylitsyn. The energy and regulatory blocks of the brain determine two general properties of the nervous system - activity (arousal) and emotionality (according to V.D. Nebylitsyn). The general properties of the energy and regulatory blocks of the brain determine the specific values ​​of the expression of the partial properties of the information block.

According to V. M. Rusalov, activity manifests itself in such temperamental traits as endurance, pace and speed of actions performed. The indicator of emotionality is, first of all, the dominant emotions and their dynamic characteristics. At the physiological level, the state of general brain activity is determined by the function of the reticular formation and the anterior parts of the neocortex (nonspecific activation). The state of activation manifests itself in movements, level of mental activity, functional states, and attention. Emotionality depends on the relationship between the anterior cortex and the limbic system of the brain.

Measuring the described properties using psychophysiological techniques makes it possible to create a profile of the severity of various properties of the nervous system of a particular person, which will reveal a connection with the intensity, pace and stability of the dynamics of his mental life.

Due to the laboriousness of using psychophysiological methods to diagnose the natural basis of temperament, questionnaires aimed at assessing the properties of temperament, which, of course, only have probabilistic-orienting significance, since when answering questions, a person’s subjective opinion about formal dynamic aspects is revealed, which can differ significantly from real indicators. Among the most famous are the “Questionnaire for assessing the structure of temperament” by V. M. Rusalov and the questionnaire “Formal characteristics of behavior” by Ya. Strelyau.

Thus, the use of objective physiological methods and/or appropriate questionnaires to determine the properties of temperament makes it possible to establish individual characteristics that are manifested in the formal-dynamic characteristics of a person’s activity (external behavior and mental processes). Currently, as natural prerequisites for individuality, along with indicators of activation and emotionality, the problem of the possibility of self-regulation of temperamental properties is of increasing interest.