C6. Consider historical. situations and answer questions. Spring-autumn 1917. in Russia there was a sharp political struggle. During which the question of alternatives for the development of the country was decided. One of the important events of this period was the speech of L.G. Kornilov. A variety of forces united in the struggle against him - from A.F. Kerensky to the Bolsheviks.

Why did the positions of such different political forces coincide? How did Kornilov's speech end? What changes in the political situation took place at the end of August-September 1917? Give facts.

1. Reasons can be given:

- there was a real threat of establishing a military dictatorship;

- Kornilov's speech could lead to the fall of the Provisional Government;

- Kornilov demanded the dissolution of the Soviets, in which various political forces were represented

1. In response:

A) it should be said about the defeat of Kornilov's speech;

B) the following changes in the political situation can be named:

- strengthening the positions of the Bolsheviks in the Soviets (Bolshevization of the Soviets);

- the advancement by the Bolsheviks of a course towards an armed uprising and the transfer of all power to the Soviets;

- A.F. Kerensky's loss of support from all leading political parties;

C6. Consider historical. situations and answer questions. In 1921, a collection of articles "Change of milestones" was published in Prague. The collection gained great fame and caused heated debate among the Russian emigration.

List any three questions that were discussed. And describe the positions that the authors adhered to for each of them.

1. The questions that have become the subject of discussion can be named:

- about the causes and essence of the revolution and the Civil War;

- about the attitude to the Soviet power;

- about the essence and possible consequences of the New Economic Policy;

- about the prospects for the development of Russia.

2. The following main ideas of the "Smenovekhites" can be named:

- understanding of the revolution and the Civil War as a phenomenon caused by everything in Russian history;

- revision of the attitude towards Bolshevism and Soviet power as a force capable of ensuring the restoration of the national and state unity of Russia at a new historical stage; conclusion about the need for emigration to cooperate with the Bolsheviks for the revival of Russia;

- understanding of the transition to the NEP as an internal rebirth of Bolshevism ("economic Brest");

- hope. That cooperation with the Bolsheviks will push the process of their internal rebirth

1. Events can be named:

1. Reasons can be given:

Participants that existed in Russia since 1816. secret societies have been developing plans for the seizure of power for a long time. However, the speech on December 14, 1825. on Senate Square in St. Petersburg was defeated.

Name at least two reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists on the development of social thought. On the domestic policy of Nicholas 1? Give at least three statements.

The following reasons for the defeat of the performance of the Decembrists can be named:

- insufficient preparedness of the speech (since the Decembrists hastened to take advantage of the situation of interregnum);

- the rate of the Decembrists on a conspiracy (and a military coup)

- dictator S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear on Senate Square;

- waiting tactics of the Decembrists

- decisive actions (cruel measures) of Nicholas 1 against the Decembrists (the use of artillery);

- The Decembrists did not take advantage of the support of the people.

The influence of the Decembrists on the development of social thought and domestic policy was manifested:

- in the awareness by representatives of public thought of the inconsistency of the ideological foundations of the Decembrists' movement (the development of new socio-political theories);

- in the emergence (development) of the revolutionary tradition in Russia;

- in the emergence of new trends in social thought in the following decades (Westerners, Slavophiles, representatives of "Russian", "communal" socialism);

- in the implementation by Nicholas 1 of a policy aimed at strengthening autocratic power.

C6. After the victorious end of the Second World War 1941-1945. in society spoke out on the liberalization of the regime, the rejection of repression, the implementation of economic reforms.

What opinions existed in the country's leadership on this issue? Name two opinions. What political course was eventually chosen? Give at least three facts to support your conclusion.

Opinions:

- proposals on using the experience of the NEP, reforming collective farmers, allowing small businesses, adopting a new Constitution

— substantiation of the course towards tightening the system, “tightening the screws”. A new round of repression. Strengthening collective farms, priority restoration and development of heavy industry, priority financing of the military-industrial complex.

It must be said that the second approach was taken as the basis of the post-war policy. And the facts can be named:

- the transfer of funds from the countryside to the city took on an expanded scale, purchase prices remained extremely low, taxes increased

- first of all, the restoration of heavy and defense industries was going on, the light and food industries and agriculture experienced an acute shortage of state funding

- repressions were resumed (against Soviet prisoners of war. "Leningrad case", "case of doctors")

- a tough ideological campaign was launched (decrees in the field of art and literature condemning the work of prominent poets, composers, cinematographers, discussions in science, ending in the defeat of entire scientific areas, etc.)

C6. Consider the historical situation and complete the task.

After the end of the Second World War, the economic situation of the USSR was difficult, the Soviet leadership considered various ways to revive the economy.

What possible paths of industrial development have been put forward? List at least two of them. Which path was chosen and why? (Give one main reason.)

Proposed ways of industrial development:

A group of leaders (A.A. Zhdanov, N.A. Voznesensky and others) considered it possible not to force the development of industry, counting on a post-war crisis in Western states;

- another group (L.P. Beria, L.P. Malenkov and others) took into account the strengthening of Western countries after the war. The US possession of the atomic bomb and offered the accelerated development of heavy industry, especially defense

The path of development and the reasons for choosing it can be named:

Stalin supported:

- the second path, which formed the basis for the preparation and implementation of the post-war five-year plan;

—the conformity of this direction with the basic doctrine of building communism on the basis of the predominant development of heavy industry.

C6. In the spring of 1921, a decision was made to replace the surplus appraisal with a tax in kind.

What other proposals for a way out of the crisis of the early 1920s? expressed during this period? Name at least two sentences. Explain why it was necessary to make radical changes in the economic and political course? Give at least three reasons for changing course.

Other proposals made during this period can be named:

The tightening of the policy of "war communism", the expansion of violence, the creation of labor armies

- a complete rejection of "war communism" and the policy of a direct transition to communism. Replacing the surplus with a tax in kind, the introduction of the NEP

The following reasons can be given:

- an acute economic crisis caused by a long war

The crisis of the policy of "war communism"

- transition from war to peace

- peasant uprisings in the Tambov province, the Volga region, Siberia, the Urals, the Don, etc.

Discontent in the army, Kronstadt uprising

- Demonstrations of workers in Moscow. Petrograd, other cities

- revitalization of the activities of the Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries, and other political forces opposed to Bolshevism.

C6. In 1928-1929. There was a discussion about the pace of industrialization.

What other opinions on this issue were then expressed? Name two opinions. What approach to industrialization was ultimately chosen? Give at least three facts related to the course.

Opinions may be given:

- N.I. Bukharin spoke in favor of conducting I. taking into account the capabilities of the peasantry while maintaining the proportions between industry and agriculture

— I.V. Stalin, abandoning his previous position, insisted on speeding up industrialization at any cost, financing it by transferring it from the countryside to the city.

It should be said that a course for forced I. has been chosen, and the following facts related to its implementation can be named:

- in 1928, the planned figures were revised towards a sharp increase

- As a result of forced industrialization, the USSR came to second place in terms of industrial production, dozens of large industrial enterprises were built

- the planned growth plans were not achieved, there was a tendency for them to fall

- financing of I. was mainly carried out at the expense of the village, its price was collectivization, the backlog of light industry, the decline in the standard of living of the population, the use of free labor of prisoners

- during the years of industrialization in the USSR, a command economic system was finally formed, subordinated to directive planning. Completely state-owned, systematically resorting to non-economic methods of coercion.

C6. In the late 1960s there was an actual rejection of the economic reform in 1965.

What opportunities for economic development existed at that time? Name at least two. What were the reasons for the economic difficulties of the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s? Give at least three reasons.

Possibilities can be mentioned:

- continuation of the reform, renewal of the economic mechanism, resolution of the independence of the enterprise, the use of material incentives, a combination of administrative regulation with economic

- widespread use of administrative forms of economic management, the actual preservation of the command economy

— deep reformation of the country's economic system, significant adjustment of the basic structures of the command economy (directive planning, centralized pricing, etc.)

Reasons can be given:

- Refusal to actively carry out and, all the more so, to deepen the economic reforms of the mid-1960s.

- the dominance of the command economic system

Extensive economic development

— difficulties in introducing the achievements of scientific and technical progress into the economy in a command system

— disproportions in the development of individual industries

— high level of expenses for the military-industrial complex

— the gap between the growth of monetary incomes of the population and the pace of economic development

— dependence on primary industries and world oil and gas prices

C6. Specify the characteristic features of the development of capitalism in Russia in 1861-1890.

The development of capitalism in industry:

- the industrial revolution began under serfdom, ended after the abolition of serfdom (by the end of the 19th century). There was a transition to the factory, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat were formed

- the acceleration of the pace of industrial development as a result of the reforms of 1861-1874.

- a combination of manufactories with developed forms of the capitalist economy (factory, banking system, advanced technology), the formation of monopolies

- development of means of communication, acceleration of commodity exchange

- the regulatory role of the state in the development of industry (loans, government orders, support for banks)

— participation of foreign capital in the Russian economy

The development of capitalism in agriculture:

- serf remnants in the countryside, peasant community

- social stratification of peasants (kulaks, farm laborers), entrepreneurship of peasants

- social contradictions, conflicts

- tougher exploitation of the masses, imperfection of labor legislation

the bourgeoisie had no political power

Conclusion: disproportions in socio-economic development (developed economy, backward village, inequality of social groups)

C6. Name the main phenomena and processes of the socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century.

New phenomena in the economy:

- the beginning of the spread of manufactory production (state and merchant manufactories)

- the transition of artisans to small-scale production (to the market, and not to order), the specialization of crafts in certain regions of Russia

- the emergence of all-Russian trade fairs (Arkhangelskaya, Irbitskaya, Makarievskaya)

- formation of the all-Russian market

- development of trade with the countries of Europe and the East, the policy of mercantilism

- the growth of cities, including fortress cities in the South Urals, Siberia, the economic development of new lands

Social development:

- changes in the social structure of society (strengthening of the nobility, its equalization in rights with the boyars, the growth of the population of cities, the emergence of the Cossacks)

- the final enslavement of the peasants by the Cathedral Code of 1649

- strengthening the tax burden

- Social performances (Salt and Copper riots, an uprising led by S. Razin) ; general definition of the 17th century - "rebellious age"

C6. In the middle of the 13th c. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde khans, avoid conflicts and not give rise to new invasions.

Name at least two attempts by the Russian principalities and lands in the middle of the 13th century to pursue a policy different from the one described above in relation to the Horde. What reasons predetermined the choice made by Prince Alexander Nevsky? Give at least three reasons.

Attempts:

- at the beginning of the 50s. In the 13th century, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei Yaroslavich, in alliance with Daniil of Galicia and the Prince of Tver, prepared a campaign against the Horde and was defeated

- in the same years, Daniil Galitsky tried to resist the Horde, but was defeated and was forced to recognize dependence on the Horde khans

In 1257, the anti-Horde uprising in Novgorod was brutally suppressed.

Causes:

- devastated and fragmented Rus' did not have sufficient strength to resist the Horde

— Al. Nevsky sought to concentrate the main forces on countering the aggression of the crusaders from the West - the policy chosen by Al. Nevsky allowed the Russian lands to restore the destroyed agriculture, crafts, trade

- it allowed to avoid new devastating invasions of the Horde armies.

C6. Consider the historical situation and complete the task.

Khan Batu, after the defeat of Russian cities and lands, imposed tribute on them. The Mongols never “fought” Novgorod, but the Novgorodians paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Why did the Mongols "not fight" Novgorod? Give at least two reasons. Why did the Novgorodians have to pay tribute to the Golden Horde? Give at least three sentences.

The Mongols "did not fight" Novgorod, because:

- Batu's army suffered significant losses, was weakened by the resistance of Rus';

- wooded and swampy terrain and spring thaw created great difficulties for the Mongolian horsemen

Judgments that the Novgorodians were forced to pay tribute in favor of the Horde, because:

- The Horde sent its "numeraries" to Novgorod for the census and taxation of the Novgorodians;

- Prince Al. Nevsky believed that it was not yet possible to challenge the Horde of Rus';

- under the threat of the appearance of the Horde troops, the Novgorodians were forced to come to terms with the demands of the Horde and agree to the payment of tribute.

C6. Name the main stages and key events in the formation and development of the Old Russian state.

Stages of development of the Old Russian state:

- 9-10 centuries. - the unification of the East Slavic tribes, the formation of a single state;

- the end of the 10th-11th centuries - the heyday of the ancient Russian state (the creation of a system of power and military organization)

The end of the 11th - 1st half of the 12th century - the beginning of the collapse of the state, fragmentation, princely strife.

Key events and phenomena:

- prerequisites for the formation of the state (decomposition of the tribal community, the allocation of tribal nobility, the development of economic and trade relations, the formation of intertribal alliances, the desire to organize a rebuff to enemies)

- chronicle information about the calling of the Varangians

- Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state

- the activities of the first Rurikovich, the subjugation of the East Slavic tribes, the unification of Kyiv and Novgorod.

- baptism of Rus' under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, adoption of Christianity

- the reign of Yaroslav the Wise: the formation of a political system, the creation of a code of laws

- the threat of fragmentation, attempts to maintain unity; Vladimir Monomakh.

C6. in the middle of the 17th century, under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon, reforms were carried out in the Russian Orthodox Church.

What proposals for reforms, different from the position of Patriarch Nikon, were made at that time? Name two sentences. What were the consequences of Nikon's church reforms? List at least three consequences.

Offers other than Nikon's positions:

- when carrying out the unification of church rites and liturgical books, rely not on Greek, but on ancient Russian samples

Consequences:

- the reform led to the unification of church rites and liturgical books, contributed to the strengthening of the spiritual, ideological integrity of Russian Orthodoxy

- a long dispute about the supremacy of secular and spiritual power, was resolved in favor of secular power, an important step was taken towards the subordination of the church to the state

- a sharp struggle between supporters and opponents of Nikon and his reforms led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church

- the Old Believer movement became one of the forms of social protest in the second half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century.

C6. In 1956 First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev spoke at the 20th Party Congress with a report "On the cult of personality and its consequences", in which he condemned the Stalinist repressions as alien to the socialist system and stated that they did not affect the essence of socialism created in the USSR.

What other opinions exist on this issue? List at least two opinions. Give at least three facts related to the policy of de-Stalinization during the "thaw".

Opinions may be given:

- the society built in the USSR in the 1930s is not socialist, it is a totalitarian society

- Stalinist repressions were a direct continuation of the policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet state, which was carried out after the October Revolution of 1917.

- Stalinist repressions were caused by a fierce class struggle, the resistance of anti-socialist principles, and built in the 1930s. society is a society of real socialism

- adoption of the resolution "On the cult of personality and its consequences" in July 1956;

- the beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of repression;

- the rehabilitation of a number of peoples who were deported in the 1930s and 1940s.

- condemnation of the personality cult of I.V. Stalin at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU (1961)

— publication of literary works containing criticism of Stalinist repressions (“One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn, “For Far and Far” by A.T. Tvardovsky, etc.)

- relative liberalization of public life (inconsistent, combined with deviations from the policy of de-Stalinization)

C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.

Until the early 1920s. Soviet Russia was in international isolation. The governments of European countries and the United States were in no hurry to diplomatically recognize the Bolsheviks. And the Bolsheviks built their policy based on the idea of ​​a world communist revolution. In 1922 Two things happened that started the change.

Name these events. List at least three reasons. Allowing our country to emerge from international isolation.

1. Events can be named:

- participation of Soviet Russia in the Genoa Conference;

- signing of an agreement with Germany in Rapallo.

1. Reasons can be given:

To interest foreign states in the development of economic relations with Russia;

- the end of the Civil War;

- the transition of our country to the New Economic Policy, which was perceived by many as evidence of serious changes in the country's domestic policy;

- to interest foreign political and business circles in solving the problem of royal debts and compensating for losses incurred as a result of nationalization.

C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.

In 1855, when Alexander 2 came to the throne, the feudal management system was in a state of crisis.

What demands on the agrarian question were put forward by representatives of social thought, different classes? How, in the provisions of the Peasant Reform of 1861. reflected the desire of Alexander 2 to reconcile the interests of different classes?

Requirements of social thought, different classes:

A) the demands of representatives of the "protective" direction (M.P. Pogodin): abolish serfdom;

B) representatives of the liberal opposition (K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin) advocated:

- the abolition of serfdom;

- obtaining land for ransom by peasants;

- preservation of landownership;

C) representatives of the radical opposition (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov) demanded:

- abolish serfdom;

- transfer the land to the peasants free of charge;

D) the peasants hoped:

- get rid of serfdom;

- get land free of charge;

- increase your land holdings.

Alexander 2 tried to reconcile the interests of different classes by the fact that:

- peasants received personal freedom;

The peasants received land. But for ransom;
- a temporarily liable state of peasants was introduced (the free labor of temporarily liable peasants was beneficial to the landowners);

- part of the peasant lands (cuts) passed to the landowners;

- the system of working off, largely caused by the lack of land of the peasants, provided the landowners' farms with labor.

What proposals for further actions of the government were received in the spring of 1881? Emperor Alexander 3? Name two sentences. Name the course chosen by the emperor and give three measures that implemented it.

Offers received by Alexander 3:

- continuation of the reforms of the previous reign, the creation of a legislative body for the development of bills with the involvement of elected representatives from zemstvos (loris-Melikov's project);

- strengthening of autocratic power, the inviolability of the autocratic principle of government, the rejection of the "extremes" of the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s, the tightening of police measures to combat the revolutionary movement (the position of K.P. Pobedonostsev)

It is said about the choice by Alexander of the 3rd course to strengthen the autocracy and the events are named:

— promulgation of the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy

Restoration of the omnipotence of censorship. Persecution of the democratic press

— limiting the autonomy of universities

- the introduction of the institution of zemstvo chiefs to control the bodies of peasant self-government

— rejection of the principle of all estates in activities in the activities of zemstvos and city dumas

- limiting the powers of zemstvos, strengthening control over them by governors

- restriction of the principles of publicity in legal proceedings, the irremovability of judges.

C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.

In the 15th century Russian boyars firmly held on to the right of parochialism. And the boyars said: "That is death to them, that without places to be." However, in the early 80s. 17th century Tsar Fedor Alekseevich abolished localism.

What was the reason for this measure? What was the significance of the abolition of parochialism?

The following reasons for the abolition of parochialism in the 1980s can be named. 17th century

The urgent need for reforms in Russia required a change in the principle of appointment to the highest government positions;

- parochial orders had a negative impact on the state and military service, the system of distribution of ranks and positions in the Russian state;

- localism hampered the king in the right to choose officials;

Localism introduced rivalry, envy, disputes among the boyars.

Provisions on the meaning of the abolition of parochialism:

- personal qualities, professional skills, zealous service to the sovereign became the main source of promotion;

- a blow was dealt to the claims of the feudal nobility to power;

- representatives of the nobility gradually became the mainstay of absolutism, won the struggle for predominance in the ruling elite of Russia.

C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.

Started in the late 1940s. The Cold War period was characterized by confrontation between the USSR and the USA, an increasing arms race, which led to the danger of a nuclear war.

What were the changes in international relations in the 1970s reflected in what events? Why did they become possible?

Changes in international relations:

- a period of some normalization of relations between the USSR and Western countries began, called detente of international tension;

- important agreements were concluded between the USSR and the USA (on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems in 1972, the limitation of strategic weapons in 1979);

- there was an improvement in relations between the USSR and France and the FRG;

The Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed in Helsinki.

Reasons for switching to discharge:

Accumulation by opposing blocs of an approximately equal number of nuclear weapons (military-strategic parity between the USSR and the USA);

— awareness by the world community of the senselessness of building up nuclear weapons;

- the calculation of the USSR on strengthening the socialist camp and the revolutionary movement in the world in the process of detente;

- US calculation on the weakening of the military-industrial complex and the defense capability of the USSR.

C6. In 1988 General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev announced the deepening of political reforms, the need to democratize Soviet society while maintaining the socialist choice. What other opinions on this issue were then expressed? Name two opinions. Give at least three facts related to the implementation of political reforms.

Opinions may be given:

- it is necessary to abandon the implementation of political reforms, to limit publicity, to curtail the processes of democratization, insofar as they threaten the gains of socialism;

- it is necessary to act more decisively, to carry out consistent democratic transformations, to allow a real multi-party system, to hold free alternative elections, to eliminate censorship, to recognize ideological diversity, including the right to exist for ideologies that are in opposition to the communist one.

The following facts may be mentioned:

- held in 1989 elections of people's deputies on an alternative basis;

- sharp discussions at the 1st Congress of People's Deputies

- the creation of the first political parties that opposed the omnipotence of the CPSU

- the abolition of the sixth article of the Constitution of the USSR on the CPSU as the leading and guiding force of Soviet society;

— activities of the Interregional Group of People's Deputies.

C6. At the beginning of the 19th century, M.M. Speransky. He proposed to implement the principle of separation of powers, create the State Duma and the State Council, and carry out other transformations.

What other ideas about the prospects for the development of the country were expressed during the reign of Alexander 1? Name two views. Was Speransky's program implemented? Why? Give at least three reasons.

Views can be named:

- Russia does not need transformations, it needs "not a constitution, but fifty efficient governors" and unlimited autocracy (N.M. Karamzin)

- Radical changes are needed - the adoption of the Constitution and the approval of the constitutional order, the restriction or liquidation of the autocracy, the abolition of serfdom (Decembrists).

Project M.M. Speransky was not fully implemented, and the reasons can be given:

- M.M.'s plans Speransky caused sharp discontent of the court society

- he did not find support among the metropolitan bureaucracy, who feared a new system of public service

- the personal qualities of Alexander 1, who retreated under pressure from conservative sentiments, also influenced the failure of the reforms

- An important reason is the contradiction between the need for reforms and the real danger of a social explosion caused by reforms.

C6. Consider the historical situation and answer the questions.

What goals did Alexander 1 set when deciding to go on a campaign? What were the goals of the Russian soldiers, participants in the campaign? What were the consequences of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814? for the international position of Russia?

Goals:

Alexandra 1:

- weaken the position of France in Europe;

— to create a system of international treaties for the purpose of concerted actions in resolving disputes

- to restore legitimate monarchies in France, Spain.

Russian soldiers, participants of the campaign:

- liberate the peoples of Europe from Napoleon's dominion;

- to defeat Napoleon's army in order to prevent the possibility of new wars.

Consequences of foreign campaigns in 1813-1814. for the international position of Russia:

- Russia made a decisive contribution to the military defeat of Napoleonic France;

- Russia, among the victorious countries of Napoleon, determined the fate of the peoples of Europe after the Napoleonic wars;

- the Kingdom of Poland became part of the Russian Empire;

- Russia took part in the creation and activities of the Holy Union;

- strengthened Russia's position in the international arena

Story. General history. Grade 10. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 20 - 21. Revolutions and reforms in the XIX century

July Revolution of 1830 in France. The new revolution in France dealt a severe blow to the Holy Alliance. It seemed that the restoration of the royal Bourbon dynasty in 1815 was to eliminate the revolutionary threat forever. But this did not happen. Supporters of liberalism gained more and more influence in France. The revolution was also brought closer by the policy pursued by the Bourbons. Reactionary circles intensified significantly in 1824, after the death of King Louis XVIII and the accession to the throne of his brother Charles X (reigned 1824-1830). The policy of the new monarch, aimed at satisfying the interests of the "old" aristocracy, caused discontent among wide sections of French society. This led to the fact that the ideas of freedom found supporters among not only the republicans, but also the bourgeoisie and workers.

King of France Louis Philippe. Engraving.1 841

In July 1830, Charles X dissolved the legislative chamber and effectively abolished the French Constitution. These actions provoked the beginning of the revolution, called the July Revolution. As a result of a popular uprising, the Bourbons were overthrown, and a representative of the side branch of the royal house, Louis Philippe I of Orleans (ruled 1830 - 1848), was elevated to the throne. The new ruler was called the "king of the bankers", as he sought to act in the interests of finance capital.

Immediately after the revolution in France, a revolution broke out in Belgium and an uprising in Poland. The July Revolution opposed France to the Holy Alliance, exacerbating the crisis that had been developing within it for more than a year. In 1833 the Holy Alliance ceased to exist. Europe has entered a period of new revolutions.

Revolution in the middle of the 19th century in France. The industrial revolution unfolding in Europe led to the formation of a society in which there was no longer room for the old feudal aristocracy. The economic crisis that hit Europe in the middle of the century led to an increase in unemployment and a deterioration in the life of the broad masses of the people. The situation was aggravated by the crop failure of potatoes (the disease destroyed the crops of this crop), which was called "the bread of the poor." The absolutist regimes were unable to control the state of affairs not only in Europe as a whole, but also in their own countries.

The Revolution of 1830 became an intermediate act in the revolutionary drama. Almost the entire society was dissatisfied with the "kingdom of bankers" in France. Influential forces turned out to be in opposition to the July Monarchy: Bonapartists (supporters of Napoleon I's nephew Louis Bonaparte), legitimists (who sought to restore the Bourbon dynasty) and republicans openly opposed Louis Philippe.

France was shocked by two uprisings of weaver workers in Lyon (1831, 1834), which were brutally suppressed by the authorities. In February 1848 an uprising broke out in Paris. Barricades were erected on the streets, there were fierce skirmishes between the defenders of the monarchy and the rebels. King Louis Philippe lost power, and France was again proclaimed a republic.

The lower classes of French society were carried away by the idea of ​​a "democratic and social republic", which was associated with prosperity and justice. One of the main demands of the workers who received representation in the Provisional Government was the right to work. The Republican government had to make concessions to the gun-wielding workers. It declared obligations to "guarantee the worker's existence through labor", "to ensure work for all citizens", and recognized the right to form workers' associations.

A real step towards making life easier for the working people was the organization of national workshops, where the unemployed could get a job. By the summer of 1848, more than 100 thousand people were already working in such workshops. To pay for their work, the government had to raise taxes, the burden of which fell on the shoulders of the peasantry. The demands of the workers, which were of a socialist nature, aroused opposition from the bourgeoisie, who also considered this revolution to be “their own”.

In the elections to the Constituent Assembly, held on the basis of universal male suffrage, moderate republicans and monarchists won the majority of votes. The deputies refused to pursue a policy of concessions to the workers, whose demands were increasingly left unanswered. National workshops, which had become too burdensome for the state, were abolished. This led to a new armed uprising of the workers of Paris. In June 1848, real battles broke out in the city with the use of artillery. The workers were completely defeated. They were opposed not only by the bourgeoisie, but also by other owners (including the peasantry).

Fear of unrest and a possible redistribution of property again raised the question of the need to establish a strong government in the country. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received the support of the peasantry and the bourgeoisie, claimed the role of pacifier of revolutionary passions. Having won the first presidential election, Louis Bonaparte in 1851 carried out a coup d'état, and in 1852 declared himself Emperor Napoleon III (reigned 1852 - 1870). The Second Empire was established in France.

This time is the period of rapid industrial development of France, when the bourgeoisie received significant privileges in the economic field. Parliament under the emperor did not play a significant role in the life of the country.

Napoleon III pursued an aggressive foreign policy, declaring himself a supporter of national movements, he at the same time supported the Pope, who prevented the national unification of Italy. In 1870, he began a war with Prussia, which ended in the complete defeat of France, the capture of the emperor and a new revolution, which finally established the republican system in the country.

French Emperor Napoleon III. Engraving. 19th century

Revolutionary and national liberation movement in Europe. The revolution of 1848 in France echoed in many European countries. The revolutionary movement for the first time acquired a pan-European character. In Italy, Germany, and the countries of Central Europe, a movement for national liberation and unification was growing. A feature of the European revolutions of the mid-nineteenth century. there was an interweaving of political and national requirements, often closely related to each other: political freedom was not conceived without freedom for all peoples.

Each of the states covered by the revolution had its own historical features, and therefore, different ways of solving the problems facing them were needed.

In Germany, there was an acute question of overcoming political fragmentation, which impeded the unity of the German nation. Created by decision of the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation included 34 monarchies and 4 free cities. The largest states of the union were Prussia and Austria. The policy of the dynasties that ruled in these countries expressed the interests of the landowning aristocracy. Senior relations dominated in the agriculture of the eastern lands of Germany. Industry was poorly developed, as customs barriers between states hampered the development of a nationwide market.

The revolution in Germany was led by liberals closely connected with industrial circles. They demanded the introduction of a constitution, the limitation of the power of monarchs, and the unification of the country. Revolutionary events began in the border states of southwestern Germany with France, and then spread to Prussia. The Prussian king was forced to agree to the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, which was tasked with drafting a constitution. The assembly did not last long and was dissolved, without fulfilling its functions. However, the constitution was still "bestowed" by the king. According to its provisions, significant power remained in the hands of the monarch. In parliamentary elections, the propertied classes were given priority. Democratic freedoms were limited.

Barricades in Berlin. Drawing.19th century

However, the revolution did not solve the problem of the unification of the country. The all-German parliament, convened in 1848 in Frankfurt am Main, adopted the constitution of a united Germany, but sharp contradictions between Prussia and Austria did not allow it to be put into effect. Germany continued to be fragmented, and the national idea of ​​the Germans remained unrealized.

H. Angeli. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I

The revolution in the Austrian Empire also ended in failure. In 1848, the inhabitants of Vienna, who revolted, obtained from Emperor Ferdinand I (reigned 1835-1848) a promise to grant a constitution, as well as the resignation of the hated minister Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859). However, the army brutally suppressed the revolutionary uprising. The young Emperor Franz Joseph (reigned 1848-1916), who took the throne, renounced the promises made by his predecessor.

The Austrian Empire united the most diverse peoples under the rule of the Habsburg dynasty. A significant part of the population, along with the Austrians, were Hungarians and Slavic peoples (Czechs, Poles, Croats, Slovenes). The Habsburgs also owned lands inhabited by Italians (Lombardy and Venice). The peoples living on the territory of the "patchwork empire" were subjected to national oppression and did not have self-government. Therefore, if in Germany the task of the national movement was to unite the Germans into a single state, then the goal of the peoples who made up the majority of the population of the Austrian Empire was the creation of their own states.

In Hungary, the whole people rose up to fight for independence. The national army defeated the imperial troops, and in 1849 Hungary declared its independence. The Russian Emperor Nicholas I came to the aid of Franz Joseph, who, according to the traditions of the policy of the Holy Alliance, sent troops to save the Austrian monarchy. Austrian and Russian troops defeated the Hungarian rebel army. The revolution in Hungary was suppressed. One of the reasons for the failure of the Hungarians was their desire to recreate a great Hungary, which would include the lands of Croats, Slovaks and Romanians. But these peoples turned out to be on the side of the opponents of the revolution.

Lajos Koshut during the Hungarian revolution of 1848 calls for volunteers in the army. Drawing. 19th century

In Italy, during the era of the Napoleonic Wars and in subsequent years, the population of all regions began to realize that they belonged to a single nation. But the country remained divided into several large and a number of small states. In 1848, the desire for national unity, political freedom, as well as hatred for foreign rulers caused mass revolutionary uprisings in Lombardy, Venice, the Papal States and Sicily. The Pope was deprived of power, and a republic was proclaimed in Rome. In northern Italy, the liberation movement led to a war with Austria waged by the Italian states, the most significant of which was the Sardinian kingdom. Discord among the Italians was the cause of their defeat. As a result, the Austrians retained their possessions in Italy. In 1849 Austrian and French troops crushed the Roman Republic, the defense of which was led by the national hero of Italy Giuseppe Gariba ldi (1807 - 1882). In the same year, the Republic of Venice fell. The revolutionary movement in Italy was defeated.

The revolutionary forces did not fully achieve their goals in any country. Monarchies either held out or, as in France, were re-established. But the defeat of the revolutions did not mean the return of the old order. After 1848 Europe changed radically. In most states, constitutions were introduced that recognized the political rights of citizens, and seigneurial vestiges were eliminated. The bourgeoisie began to play an increasingly important role in politics and economics. Defending economic and political freedoms, she sought to establish stable regimes. The main opponent of the emerging bourgeois order was the working class, which experienced the negative social consequences of the industrial revolution.

reforms in the UK. The only major European state that escaped revolutionary upheavals was Great Britain. "Workshop of the world", the most industrialized country, it had a special tradition of political culture. The ruling circles of Britain preferred to solve social problems through compromise, without resorting to violence.

The industrial revolution brought to the fore new sections of society - the industrial bourgeoisie and proletariat thanks to which the country has achieved impressive success in the economy. However, political power still belonged to the big bourgeoisie and landowners, represented in parliament by the Tory party. In society, sentiments were spreading in support of a reform that would expand the electoral rights of residents of industrial areas.

Giuseppe Garibaldi. Engraving. 19th century

The first reform, according to which a small circle of people, who belonged mainly to the industrial bourgeoisie, received the right to vote, was carried out in 1832. The majority of the country's population was not affected by the changes, and the struggle for more radical changes continued. It was carried out peacefully - through rallies and petitions.

In 1838 the British workers laid out their demands in the National Charter. The document provided for the introduction of universal suffrage and the possibility for workers' representatives to engage in parliamentary activities. Grand rallies and demonstrations were held in support of the charter, signatures were collected. Charty movement ( English."charter", from gr. "paper"), which lasted until the 50s. XIX century, throughout its history did not go beyond the bounds of legality. The few radicals who advocated the use of violence to achieve their goals did not find support among the workers.

The British authorities rejected the claims of the Chartists. The main provisions of the National Charter were put into practice in the second half of the 19th century. Liberal and Conservative governments. As a result of the parliamentary reforms of 1867 and 1884. the circle of people who had the right to vote was significantly expanded. The real power in the country belonged to the popularly elected House of Commons - the lower house of Parliament - and the government formed by it. The House of Lords remained the stronghold of the aristocracy. In Great Britain, the rights of citizens to freedom of speech, press, assembly, etc. were established. However, the big bourgeoisie and landowning nobility continued to exert a significant influence on the policy pursued by the state.

Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament in London. Photo. 20th century.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Great Britain there were strong trade unions (trade unions), which played an important role not only in the economic, but also in the political life of the country. Thanks to their activities, a number of laws regulating labor relations were adopted: the length of the working day was legally limited, and the right of workers to strike was recognized. The government took steps to develop education and healthcare. The reason for the success of the reforms lies in the traditions of civil society and law that have taken root in the British Isles.

But the behavior of the British in Ireland - the first British colony - did not correspond much to the principles of the rule of law, which they defended in their country. The desire of the Irish people for self-determination and the creation of a national state met with stubborn resistance from the authorities. The struggle of the Irish for independence was accompanied by armed clashes, leading to numerous casualties.

The fight against slavery in the USA. In the 19th century, the United States of America became one of the most dynamically developing countries in the world. The rapid industrial development of the capitalist North required a significant number of workers, so people from Europe came here who dreamed of finding an application for their strengths and talents. The successful economic development of the United States, the formation of an industrial society was hampered by the slavery that remained in the southern states. Here there were cotton plantations, on which black slaves worked, which constituted a significant part of the population of the South.

Despite the fact that the plantation economy was based on forced slave labor, from the end of the 18th century. it was on the rise. This was the result of the industrial revolution in Europe. The rapid development of the English textile industry required more and more cotton, which India alone could no longer supply.

Growing and ginning cotton turned out to be a very profitable business, so slave farms began to be created in places where they did not exist before - on the free lands of the Western United States. Wealthy planters with numerous slaves (in the early 1860s there were about 4 million people in the United States) posed a real threat to farmers who were developing at the same time the fertile plains of the West. A conflict between the economic systems of the slave-owning South and the capitalist North was inevitable.

In the middle of the XIX century. slavery has become a major issue in the political struggle in the United States. Slavery was contrary to the basic principles of civil society and the rule of law, the equality of all people, laid down in the American Constitution. Possession of people caused moral condemnation of society.

For a long time in power in the United States were mainly representatives of the planters and circles of the big bourgeoisie close to them, whose interests were expressed by the Democratic Party. Opponents of slavery united in the Republican Party created in 1854. Its program did not contain a demand for an outright prohibition of slavery, but the Republicans advocated limiting its spread to new territories. The implementation of this requirement would have caused the inevitable collapse of the slave-owning farms, which needed a constant expansion of sown areas.

The Republican Party was sympathetic to the farmers and townspeople of the North. Thanks to their support, Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was elected President of the United States in 1860. The slave owners of the South perceived this event as a threat to their interests. In early 1861, the southern states seceded from the federal American state and created the Confederate States of America (Confederation). These events led to the Civil War of the North and the South (1861 - 1865).

Abraham Lincoln. Photo

The industrial North had a significant predominance in human resources, since only a third of the US population lived in the South (and about half of the Southerners were black slaves), and overwhelming economic superiority. However, the Confederate troops turned out to be better prepared for the conduct of hostilities (many officers of the American army were from the South), so the struggle proceeded with varying success and became protracted.

Capitulation of the commander of the armies of the South, General Robert E. Lee (April 1865). Drawing. 19th century

In 1862, the Homestead Act was adopted, according to which any American had the right to receive a free plot of land (160 acres) in a sparsely populated area for a farm. The implementation of this law led to the victory of the farming lifestyle in US agriculture and contributed to the settlement and development of the West. The following year, the president signed a proclamation abolishing slavery and drafting former slaves into the army of the North.

These actions provided the Lincoln government with the support of the general population and led to a turning point in the Civil War: in 1863, the northerners managed to inflict a serious defeat on the Confederate troops near Gettysburg, and in 1865, the troops of General Ulysses Grant (1822 - 1885 ) entered the capital of the southerners Richmond.

The bloodiest war in US history ended in the defeat of the slave owners. The socio-economic and political transformations in the South that followed after the war led to the strengthening of the democratic foundations of American society. Former Negro slaves received civil rights. Nevertheless, the black population of America continued to be poor and oppressed. The former slave-owning planters kept all the land in their ownership and continued to influence the political life of the southern states, so racial segregation and discrimination remained here for a long time. Despite this, capitalist elements became predominant in the economy of the South, America received a powerful incentive for the development of an industrial society.

In most Western countries in the second half of the XIX century. the principles of constitutionalism and democracy began to take hold. This process was difficult, painful, often through violence and revolutions. Only in Great Britain managed to carry out reforms without upheavals.

Questions and tasks

1. What principles laid the foundation for the reorganization of Europe at the Congress of Vienna? Why did the European monarchs fail to achieve their goals?

2. What ideas were defended and what demands were put forward by the participants in European revolutions? To what extent have they been implemented?

3. Describe the political changes that took place in Europe in the second half of the 19th century.

4. Make a table and compare the results of the revolutions in France, Germany, the Austrian Empire and Italy.

5. Why did Britain manage to avoid revolutionary upheavals? Evaluate your classmates' answers.

6. Why, in your opinion, did the victory of the North in the American Civil War give an impetus to the industrial development of the country?

7. Representatives of the bourgeoisie during the revolution of 1848 in France made the following accusations against the workers:

“The provisional government tried to give you the right to work. But with all the fullness of his power, he managed only to send 120 or 130 thousand loafers to earthwork, which they did not even think of doing, but for which they were well paid. If they did not work, it was not because they considered these works almost useless, but because they claimed that the state was obliged to feed them for nothing. ... And the unfortunate peasant paid a tax of 45 centimes to pay for such excellent workers.

... The extreme poverty that strikes the eye in the cities, especially in large ones, is mainly caused by the wrong, immoral way of life of the workers. If the latter were guided by the spirit of prudence and sincere feelings for their family, they would rarely fall into need.

Do you think these accusations are fair? Justify your opinion.