A message about the craft of a blacksmith. Blacksmith craft. Iron smelting and processing

People have been using metal products since time immemorial. Primitive blacksmiths, surprising their fellow tribesmen, used fire to transform unsightly pieces of iron ore into weapons for hunting and farming, as well as into jewelry. Gradually, the blacksmith's craft improved, and the craftsmen accumulated their secrets, rituals and traditions appeared. The fact that the work of a forge was an unusual and wonderful thing is confirmed by numerous tales, myths and legends. And it is not for nothing that the only “divine” profession was that of a blacksmith.

Blacksmithing came to us from ancient times, from the Stone Age. In those distant times, simultaneously with the processing of stone and wood, people learned the secrets of blacksmithing. Many museums around the world keep blacksmith tools from ancient times: small round stones with a ring belt - hammers, oval flat massive stones - anvils. Microscopic examination revealed traces of native metal on the surface of these stones. On the walls of ancient Egyptian temples there are reliefs depicting people working with stone hammers. For more than 10 thousand years, blacksmithing has turned into one of the most necessary and necessary industries, without which it is impossible to create a single machine or mechanism, not a single machine tool or spaceship. Today, the country's forges are equipped with the most powerful presses and hammers in the world, they are serviced by robots and manipulators controlled by computer.

In this article we will open one of the pages of blacksmithing art. We will introduce lovers of technical craftsmanship to the beauty of forged artistic metal, talk about the basic working techniques, tools and equipment.

Blacksmith tool

A - handbrake - the main tool of a blacksmith. B, C - war hammer (sledgehammer) - a hammer tool.

Blacksmithing involves fire, hot metal, and powerful hammer blows, so for convenient and safe work, you need to choose a suitable place for the forge, acquire reliable tools, purchase a canvas apron, mittens and safety glasses. It is advisable to carry out all blacksmith work outdoors; choose a place where you will not disturb others.

The basic tools of a blacksmith are a hammer, pliers, anvil, vice and forge. The hammer, or, as blacksmiths call it, the handbrake, bears the main impact load, and therefore it must be especially reliable. It is better to wedge the hammer handle using a metal “barbed” wedge. When working “with two hands,” that is, with a hammer, heavy war hammers or sledgehammers weighing up to 16 kg are used.

Forging tongs are used to remove heated workpieces from the forge and hold them during forging. The pliers should be light, with springy handles. To clamp the workpiece, a special ring - a spandrel - is sometimes put on the handles of the pliers. The jaws of the pliers must match the shape of the workpiece. Pliers with flat jaws are designed for flat sheet and strip workpieces, with cylindrical or angled jaws - for longitudinal gripping of round bars, with radius jaws - for gripping workpieces of complex shapes.

Most blacksmithing work is done on an anvil. There are several varieties of anvils, ranging from a rectangular steel bar to anvils with several horns, various technological protrusions and holes. The most convenient to use is a two-horned anvil weighing from 70 to 250 kg. On its front surface there are one or two round holes (12-15 mm in diameter) for punching holes in the forging and one square hole (35 X 35 mm), located in the tail area, into which a backing tool (nizhnyaki) is inserted.

The anvil is placed on a massive wooden block-chair, which is buried in the ground and compacted well or filled with concrete. For small jobs, the anvil can be simply installed on the bench through a gasket made of thick sheet rubber. The good quality of the anvil is indicated by a high and clear sound when hitting it with a hammer. The surface of the anvil should be flat and smooth, and the edges should be free of creases and chips.

For small jobs, a shperak is used as a support tool, which is inserted with the shank into the square hole of the anvil.

Blacksmith chair vise is designed for clamping workpieces. The vice is made of steel (so, unlike cast iron, it can withstand impacts well) and is securely mounted on a special chair or on the main post of the workbench.

A blacksmith cannot do without a backing tool. It is placed under a handbrake or a war hammer when performing certain operations.

A blacksmith's chisel differs from a mechanic's chisel in that it has a hole (boring) for the handle. The working part of the chisel can be located parallel to the handle or perpendicular. In the first case, the chisel is used for transverse cutting, in the second - for longitudinal cutting. To chop workpieces without a hammer, a hook is used, which is installed in the anvil socket, and the workpiece is placed on it and chopped with handbrake blows.

The holes are punched using punches, the working part of which can be round, square or rectangular, depending on the shape of the holes being punched.

To level surfaces, trowels with flat or cylindrical working surfaces are used.

Crimpers are used as a paired backing tool to give forgings the correct cylindrical or prismatic shapes, and tampers are used to speed up the drawing of metal. The upper part of the instrument (tops) has wooden handles. The lower part (lowers or undersides) is inserted with a tetrahedral tail into the square hole of the anvil. To plant the heads of bolts and nails, special boards with holes are used - nails.

To produce curls, meanders and curves from rods and strips, as well as parts from sheet material, a variety of shaped and profile mandrels, plates with holes for pins, grooves and cutouts are used.

The forge is the most complex tool of a blacksmith. Stationary forges are usually installed near the main wall or in the center of the room; they serve as the heart of the forge. The pedestal for the hearth is made of metal, brick or stone. In rural areas, it is often just a box with wooden, brick or stone walls, filled with compacted sand with clay and stones.

For work in the field, as well as for amateur purposes, you can make a simple portable forge. Another option is to place the fireplace in a hole in the ground. The air is supplied by a household electric fan, a vacuum cleaner or a foot-operated car pump. The fuel used is charcoal or coal, coke, peat, firewood and bark, as well as their mixtures. For small blacksmithing jobs, you can build a firebrick hearth using a blowtorch for heating.

Forged art products are usually made from low-carbon steel. It is not difficult to select such steel: it practically does not produce sparks on the emery wheel. Heat the workpiece over low heat until it turns light yellow (lemon) color, preventing the metal from burning. Stop forging when the light turns dark red.

Working methods

Forged metal requires a laconic, finished design. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully approach the selection of the composition, work it out in sketches or sculpt it from plasticine. It is advisable to make templates for all elements from wire and only after you are satisfied with the general design and composition of the product, start forging.

Let's consider the technology of work using the example of small decorative grilles (see Fig.), which cover radiators, windows, which are installed in summer cottages and gardens, etc.

The lattice consists of a frame into which two volutes (curls) are embedded. To make volutes, they take strip or rod material, chop off the required workpiece with a chisel or by undercutting, and then bend a figure of a given shape on a conical anvil horn or on a mandrel. The square frame is made from a strip, the ends are connected with rivets or forge welding. Holes in a thin (1-2 mm) strip can be punched with a punch without heating, and in a thick strip - with heating. The workpiece is placed on an anvil over a round hole, a punch is installed and hit with a war hammer, rivets are inserted into the holes and riveted.

To connect the ends of the frame by forge welding, the metal is heated under a layer of flux (quartz sand, borax or table salt) to a white-hot temperature, one end of the strip is placed on the other and they are welded with hammer blows.

Volutes are inserted into the finished frame and connected to the frame using rivets or interceptions (thin staples). To make the item look “antique,” ​​the ends of the volutes are finished with a tight ball or paw, and the joints are covered with interceptions.

The central pattern of the other lattice consists of eight identical C-shaped scrolls. Here, too, you must first make templates, bend the curls according to them, punch holes in them for rivets and assemble them into a frame.

It is somewhat more difficult to make candlesticks and flower stands - here you need to combine several technological operations. For example, to make a three-arm candlestick, you need to forge 3 bent base brackets, 2 candle brackets, 3 plates and a central rod. For the central rod, take a square-section blank. One of its ends is clamped in a chair vice, a wrench or gas wrench is put on the other and twisted in the longitudinal direction. Cold metal has a larger pitch, hot metal has a smaller pitch. If you need to twist a large number of identical workpieces at the same angle, put a restrictive pipe on the workpiece and twist it until the knob rests on the pipe. To obtain a variable pitch, the heated metal is cooled with a wet cloth as it is twisted, or the workpiece is heated unevenly along its length. Finally, a small cylindrical tip is pulled back on the rod to attach the central plate.

To make plates for candles, flowers, rosettes, you need to cut the metal and cut it along the contour with shaped chisels. After this, using mandrels, hammers and chisels, the product is given the intended shape and a central hole is punched for fastening. A large number of identical rosettes can be made by stamping with an elastic tool (this method was known to the ancient Scythians in the 7th century BC). A blank of thin soft metal is placed on a stamp with some kind of relief, an elastic gasket (sheet lead or thick rubber) is installed on it, and a strong blow is applied to the gasket. To protect the lead from cracking, the edges are grabbed with a bandage made of a steel ring. The blank produces a reverse copy of the relief. In this way you can stamp flowers, rosettes, etc. The stamp is made of metal, stone and even hard wood. The final assembly of the candlestick is done using rivets or forge welding.

Making lights requires great skill. In the 18th-19th centuries, the light was one of the most common household items; they tried to decorate it in every possible way. The blacksmith who forged the light put all his soul and skill into the work. When forging lights, many techniques are used, ranging from bending to forge welding. The central, main rod, as a rule, has an axial curl; from below it is cut with a chisel, usually into four parts, and attached to a massive base ring. Often the rod is decorated with curls or snakes, which are riveted or welded. The greatest attention is paid to the “head” of the socialite. For splinters, splits are made by longitudinally cutting vertical rods, and for candles, a sleeve is forged.

Using approximately the same technology, you can make a modern table lamp or floor lamp. Beautiful forged racks are made from two or four rods cut along the axis and twisted. After cutting, the branches are expanded, forged, and then twisted at a small angle (see figure). An interesting twist can be obtained from several thin rods welded at the ends. During twisting, it is necessary to push the rods slightly along the axis with a hammer blow.

A cone of twisted metal is often made above the lampshade. Curling it is also not an easy task. First, the rod is pulled back, and then one part of the workpiece is rolled into three or four turns. The opposite end of the rod is secured in a vice and rolled in the same way. After that, two twisted figures are placed one above the other and after the next heating, the entire cone is stretched to a certain length using mandrels, a hammer and a chisel. The base of the lampshade can be made of cut metal. In Rus', valances were made from perforated metal to finish the eaves of roofs, the ridges of gables and drainage pipes. This work is not very difficult, although painstaking. A design is applied to the sheet blank, and then a notch is made using chisels on an anvil. In order not to spoil the faces of the anvil, a sheet of soft metal is placed under the workpiece. To punch a large number of shaped holes, special punches and dies are usually made.

To create identical patterns on sheet metal, you can also use embossing using matrix boards made by casting followed by engraving. This type of processing is called basma. A sheet of metal 0.2-0.3 mm thick is placed on the matrix board, then a cushion made of lead or sheet rubber is placed, and it is struck with a wooden hammer or clamped in a vice or press.

Wrought iron lanterns or lamps are often decorated with acanthus leaves and curls. They are made from sheet material. First, the product is unwrapped, then it is cut out along the contour. The given shape is given using special hammers and mandrels. The leaves are connected to the product using rivets or forge welding.

Forged metal can be used to decorate doors, gates and gates in an interesting way. The main decorative elements of doors and gates in Rus' were zhikovinas (a special type of hinge), door handles, overhead ax locks and locks.

Zhikovinas were forged from thick sheet material. At one end the bushing for the axle was bent, and at the other end a decorative finish was made in the form of reds or curls (see figure). To make curls, the main strip was cut into longitudinal strips, which were then unforged and shaped into curls. The surface of the zhikovins was decorated with notches, dots, circles and other ornamental elements. Forged surfaces were often “stuffed” - using smoothers and a hammer they were given a faceted surface.

The door ring, or knocker, is made by bending a round rod, and the bead in the middle of the ring is made by upsetting and then forging with crimps. The cover for the chime is cut out of sheet material and decorated with ornaments.

Ax locks look very impressive on wooden gates. The central part of the ax plates has a beautiful perforation, under which colored materials are placed - this decorates the gate. Caskets, chests and headrests were previously made with the same decorative perforated overlays.

In conclusion, we note that forged and perforated metal looks very good both independently and in combination with colored glass, ornamental stone, tinted wood and smooth fabrics.

The first ancient Russian professional artisans were blacksmiths. In epics, legends and fairy tales, the blacksmith is the personification of strength and courage, goodness and invincibility. Iron was then smelted from swamp ores. Ore mining was carried out in autumn and spring. It was dried, fired and taken to metal smelting workshops, where metal was produced in special furnaces. During excavations of ancient Russian settlements, slags are often found - waste from the metal smelting process - and pieces of ferruginous grain, which, after vigorous forging, became iron masses. The remains of blacksmith workshops were also discovered, where parts of forges were found. There are known burials of ancient blacksmiths, who had their production tools - anvils, hammers, tongs, chisels - placed in their graves.

Old Russian blacksmiths They supplied the farmers with ploughshares, sickles, and scythes, and the warriors with swords, spears, arrows, and battle axes. Everything that was needed for the household - knives, needles, chisels, awls, staples, fishhooks, locks, keys and many other tools and household items - was made by talented craftsmen.

Old Russian blacksmiths achieved special skill in the production of weapons. Unique examples of ancient Russian craft of the 10th century are objects discovered in the burials of the Black Tomb in Chernigov, necropolises in Kyiv and other cities.

A necessary part of the costume and attire of the ancient Russian people, both women and men, were various jewelry and amulets made by jewelers from silver and bronze. That is why clay crucibles in which silver, copper, and tin were melted are often found in ancient Russian buildings. Then the molten metal was poured into limestone, clay or stone molds, where the relief of the future decoration was carved. After this, an ornament in the form of dots, teeth, and circles was applied to the finished product. Various pendants, belt plaques, bracelets, chains, temple rings, rings, neck hryvnias - these are the main types of products of ancient Russian jewelers. For jewelry, jewelers used various techniques - niello, granulation, filigree, embossing, enamel.

The blackening technique was quite complex. First, a “black” mass was prepared from a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulfur and other minerals. Then this composition was applied to the design on bracelets, crosses, rings and other jewelry. Most often they depicted griffins, lions, birds with human heads, and various fantastic beasts.

Grain required completely different methods of work: small silver grains, each 5-6 times smaller than a pin head, were soldered to the flat surface of the product. What labor and patience, for example, it took to solder 5 thousand of these grains onto each of the colts that were found during excavations in Kyiv! Most often, grain is found on typical Russian jewelry - lunnitsa, which were pendants in the shape of a crescent.

If, instead of grains of silver, patterns of the finest silver, gold wires or strips were soldered onto the product, then the result was filigree. Sometimes incredibly intricate designs were created from such wire threads.

The technique of embossing on thin gold or silver sheets was also used. They were pressed tightly against a bronze matrix with the desired image, and it was transferred to a metal sheet. Images of animals were embossed on colts. Usually this is a lion or leopard with a raised paw and a flower in its mouth. The pinnacle of ancient Russian jewelry craftsmanship was cloisonné enamel.

The enamel mass was glass with lead and other additives. Enamels were of different colors, but red, blue and green were especially popular in Rus'. Jewelry with enamel went through a difficult path before becoming the property of a medieval fashionista or a noble person. First, the entire design was applied to the future decoration. Then the thinnest sheet of gold was placed on it. Partitions were cut from gold, which were soldered to the base along the contours of the design, and the spaces between them were filled with molten enamel. The result was an amazing set of colors that played and shone in different colors and shades under the sun’s rays. The centers for the production of cloisonné enamel jewelry were Kyiv, Ryazan, Vladimir...

And in Staraya Ladoga, in a layer of the 8th century, an entire industrial complex was discovered during excavations! The ancient Ladoga residents built a pavement of stones - iron slags, blanks, production waste, and fragments of foundry molds were found on it. Scientists believe that a metal smelting furnace once stood here. The richest treasure of craft tools found here is apparently connected with this workshop. The treasure contains twenty-six items. These are seven small and large pliers - they were used in jewelry and iron processing. A miniature anvil was used to make jewelry. The ancient locksmith actively used chisels - three of them were found here. Sheets of metal were cut using jewelry scissors. Drills were used to make holes in the wood. Iron objects with holes were used to draw wire in the production of nails and boat rivets. Jewelry hammers and anvils for chasing and embossing ornaments on jewelry made of silver and bronze were also found. Finished products of an ancient artisan were also found here - a bronze ring with images of a human head and birds, rook rivets, nails, an arrow, and knife blades.

Findings at the site of Novotroitsky, in Staraya Ladoga and other settlements excavated by archaeologists indicate that already in the 8th century craft began to become an independent branch of production and gradually separated from agriculture. This circumstance was important in the process of class formation and the creation of the state.

If for the 8th century we know only a few workshops, and in general the craft was of a domestic nature, then in the next, 9th century, their number increased significantly. Craftsmen now produce products not only for themselves, their families, but also for the entire community. Long-distance trade ties are gradually strengthening, various products are sold on the market in exchange for silver, furs, agricultural products and other goods.

Skills blacksmithing, as well as profession - blacksmith, probably originated in those distant times that we call the “Iron Age”.
The first metal objects discovered during archaeological excavations were made almost 5,000 years ago. Ancient man lived by hunting and gathering wild plants. He hunted with the help of stones, wooden clubs, large bones and sharpened wooden spears. The problem was that cobblestones, dubye and bones require a rough and heavy force, and imply close contact with the prey. The point of a primitive dart, thrown at a distance from the chosen target, often turned out to be not a strong enough weapon to pierce the skin of an animal. Agriculture in our understanding as a current one did not exist, since poorly turned bones and wood broke on the ground. Everything changed with the discovery of metal and the development of the skill of its preparation.

Someone, apparently by accident, discovered that certain types of rock soften when exposed to high temperatures, and then harden when cooled. This material and its exposed properties were used to create simple tools such as knives and scrapers, and eventually to produce spear and arrowheads that were much harder and sharper than those made from stone.
People who knew how to heat and shape metal into an arrowhead or spearhead, and who could make iron tools suitable for farming, were humanity's first technical experts of their kind. With the ability to cultivate farmland for food, as well as hunt more efficiently, life became easier and blacksmiths became in great demand.

The primary focus of the early blacksmiths was on making deadly weapons. It was easy to create weapons for warfare from weapons for hunting - the same arrows and spearheads can be used both for hunting animals and used against people. In peacetime, when the demand for military weapons was declining, blacksmiths had to produce other products to earn their livelihood. It was during these periods, in the ancient past, that blacksmiths learned the more complex aspects of their specialty and began making household items for everyday use, such as vases, urns, goblets and the like...

Blacksmiths were forced to “keep up the brand”, improving their skills to meet the ever-increasing needs of a discerning clientele.

Of course, over time, blacksmiths learned to produce more and more complex and advanced weapons and equipment, ranging from knives and swords, crossbow triggers, to shields and armor, and then guns along with agricultural products, horseshoes and plows.

The patron of blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans and sculptors, one of many in the ancient Greek pantheon of gods, was Hephaestus. He was worshiped and revered as the god of technology, metal, fire and metallurgy. He was identified with natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires, and many of his forges were built in volcanic craters.

Greek artists, as a rule, depicted Hephaestus as a bearded man riding a donkey, holding a hammer in his hands, and his symbols are considered to be: a hammer, tongs, an anvil, and a brazier.

With the advent of the industrial era, the blacksmith became one of the “founders” of technical progress. It was he who created the components and parts for assembling the machines that brought about the industrial revolution. As machines became larger and more complex, blacksmiths with the appropriate skills were needed to produce the necessary parts for them. By the end of the 19th century, the factories that had been erected were producing metal in huge volumes and less labor intensively than blacksmiths could.
The sad thing is that the machines in the construction of which the blacksmiths took an active part soon replaced them. However, in the sixties of the last century, metal began to be increasingly used in areas related to architecture and furniture production. Demand for artistic ironwork has grown, and ironworking is still a viable and growing business today, although not as popular as it once was.

Blacksmithing - the shaping of heated metal using a hammer and anvil - has been around for over a thousand years. Without the knowledge of hot metal forging, we would still be living in the Stone Age. Without blacksmiths there would be no tools, cars and trains, or modern industry. And this is just the practical side. Blacksmiths of former times produced many highly artistic products. Openwork bars on windows with complex patterns made of metal, strong and reliable gates, and ingenious locks still decorate and protect ancient cathedrals, castles and palaces around the world.

Blacksmithing is the profession of a blacksmith.. All that is required is metal, fire, water and wind. And, of course, the inspiration of the artist-blacksmith. What could be simpler: heat the metal until it glows red, and then place it on the anvil. Iron, when heated to a certain temperature, becomes pliable and soft, that is, malleable. The artist can only give the workpiece the desired shape with a hammer or other available tools.

The product of a blacksmith's work is called wrought iron or wrought iron. An iron alloy called wrought iron was widely used in the past and was used until about the twenties of the last century. Wrought iron has high mechanical properties, especially useful in hot forging. Products made from it are very corrosion-resistant, even in sea water. Today, most iron products are made from mild steel, which is easily available and cheaper. However, real forged products are slowly returning and occupying their niche, since they have unique characteristics and a very beautiful textured surface.

Blacksmithing is one of the oldest crafts. The forging of native and meteorite iron began in the Stone Age. Working as a blacksmith was prestigious and honorable. Ordinary people often considered the farrier a “prophetic man” or a sorcerer because he turned a piece of brown stone into a valuable thing.

Fun fact:
Even among the Russian monarchs there were forging lovers - Ivan the Terrible (1530–1584) and Peter I (1672–1725). It is historically attested that Peter I took part in the forging of anchors at the Voronezh shipyard. How large iron forgings used to be made - anchors are shown in movie "Peter the Great" .

Initially, metals were hammered only in a cold state: this is how metal was equated to stone. An interesting assumption about the first smelting of iron was made by the English archaeologist A. Lucas: “It is almost certain that iron was first smelted by accident, perhaps as a result of the mistaken use of iron ore instead of copper ore. This kind of attempt was probably repeated more than once until the master accidentally hit the half-cooled metal with a hammer, which could have been crowned with partial success. Finally, people realized that for complete success in mastering a new metal, they need to forge it in a red-hot state.”

Rural forges were small and had practically no windows. In order to forge a workpiece with high quality, the blacksmith needed to determine how hot it was. There were no pyrometers or special instruments for determining temperature, so readiness was determined by the colors of the heat. Only the twilight made it possible to see and understand the necessary shade of glow, in which the degree of incandescence casts yellow-red tints.

The forge was built in 1910. Museum of Wooden Architecture, village. Taltsy. Photo: M. Ignatiev / photobank “Lori”

Interior of an ancient forge. Photo: A. Tikhonov / photobank “Lori”

Forged products on the table in the forge. Photo: A. Tikhonov / photobank “Lori”

Fun fact:
They say that in the past blacksmiths even used their beards to determine the temperature of the metal for welding. They brought the heated part to the beard and, if the hairs began to crack and curl, the workpieces were welded.

Exhibits and finds

These days the building Museum "City Forge of the 17th Century"- the oldest house in Smolensk. It contains authentic tools and numerous blacksmith products of the 17th–19th centuries and recreates the creative laboratory of a blacksmith.

The oldest wrought iron item found by archaeologists is considered to be beads made from hollow tubes. They were found by the English archaeologist Petrie during excavations of Egyptian graves of the late 4th century BC. e.

Researchers Nizhny Tagil Museum-Reserve "Gornozavodskoy Ural" We found places where copper and iron smelting was carried out in ancient times. Entire complexes of melting furnaces and fragments of crucibles were found. At Laisky Cape, soil ovens, remains of adobe ovens and small stone ovens were discovered.

The new settlement “Uralochka”, dating back to the early Iron Age on the left bank of the Malaya Medvedka River, was discovered by schoolchildren helping archaeologists.

The most curious find of Tagil archaeologists is an iron dagger, corroded by rust, which has lain in the ground since the 6th century. Chemical analysis of the metal showed that it contains silicon, manganese, phosphorus - elements that make up modern steel.

Blacksmith at work. Festival "Times and Epochs - 2013", Kolomenskoye. Photo: N. Uvarova / photobank “Lori”

Forged grape bunch. Photo: A. Sidorov / photobank “Lori”

Blacksmith at the anvil. Photo: S. Maiteles / photobank “Lori”

Masters and crafts

The Dagestan village of Kubachi became famous for its skilled jewelers. For a long time they were engaged in the weapons craft and lived mainly on income from it. The first mention of Kubachi is found among Arab historians of the 9th–12th centuries, who called this territory Zirikhgeran or Zerekeran, which means “chain mail masters” (Ali al-Masudi, 10th century; Abu Hamid Andalusi, 12th century). Since ancient times, chain mail, stirrups, weapons (swords, bows, knives, daggers), helmets, copper utensils, etc. were made here. Later, the name of the village was replaced by the Arabic Kubachi, which had the same meaning. Travelers of the 18th–19th centuries reported on the production of firearms, the making of rifles, pistols, as well as sabers, scabbards and armor, and the work of gold and silver smiths. Famous