Women's jewelry in the Middle Ages. Jewelry, treasures, treasures. Museum of the Middle Ages. Men's clothing of the early Middle Ages

From Wikitranslators

Earrings during the Late Middle Ages, they were considered a sign of marginality; sometimes Jews, Muslims, prostitutes, executioners and criminals were forced by special decrees to wear earrings, thus demonstrating their isolation from a “decent” society. Surprising as it may seem to us, fishermen, who were looked upon with suspicion by the "land" with suspicion, were considered similar renegades. Wearing an earring in the right ear was the custom for men in fishing villages.

However, at the end of the 15th century, “marginal” fashion began to become more widespread. The wealthy strata of the city and the countryside paid attention to precious earrings, astutely discerning in this unusual decoration a way of profitable investment. The fashion for earrings captured the whole society, now the outcasts were forbidden to wear earrings by special decrees. Doctors insisted that ear piercing was unhygienic and simply dangerous to health, but, as usual, without any success.

Rings from simple metals for people of modest means, gold and silver rings for the wealthy sections of the city and village were a common decoration. It should be noted that in the Middle Ages, wearing a wedding ring was exclusively a female prerogative and spread to men no earlier than the 19th century. Rings were worn on all fingers, sometimes wearing several on each, it may seem somewhat unusual for us to wear rings not only at the base of the finger, as is customary now, but also at the middle phalanx. Rings on the thumb were supposed to symbolize strength and power.

Smooth rings were comparatively rare, and vice versa, skillful jewelers from a single piece of gold or silver were able to cast a ring in the form of a waist belt with a buckle, or a heart attached to the rim. The rings were decorated with chasing and carved patterns. Seals were also known, which should serve to imprint the wax with which the letter was sealed; such rings could bear the image of the coat of arms of their owner. There were also frequent mottos, including love ones. A man's ring has survived to our time, on which the word "The Only One" is written. Rings with a precious or semi-precious stone in the frame were supposed to serve as talismans for the owner, the stones were prescribed the ability to maintain health, ward off troubles, help their owner in business, etc.

Bracelets, both male and female, were decorated with chasing or carved patterns depicting ornaments, plants, animals or birds. This is how the bracelet with squirrels is known, dating back to the 14th-15th centuries. Bracelets were worn as a sign of love, there are cases when a knight, receiving a bracelet from a lady of the heart, put it on his left hand, while pledging to fight for her with anyone who dared to answer the challenge.

Rings, bracelets, earrings
The ring on the thumb acted as a symbol of power and strength, a similar style was preferred by men from the aristocratic strata of the population. Hans Memling "Young Man at Prayer" (detail). OK. 1475. National Gallery, London	Medieval fashion corresponded to both narrow and massive rings and rings with chased patterns and precious stones. Gerard David "Portrait of a Jeweler" (detail). 1505. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna	A married woman had to wear a wedding ring, others depended on her personal taste and the wealth of the family. Rogier van der Weyden (workshop) "Portrait of a Woman" (detail). OK. 1460. National Gallery, London	Copper bracelet of the last years of the Middle Ages. England, 1500 or later. Private collection of Peter Reavill, England	Earrings came into fashion in the later years of the medieval era. Francesco Ubertini "The Sibyl" (detail). OK. 1525-1550. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Highly valued in the medieval era necklaces remained mainly the prerogative of the propertied classes, although the cunning servants, who did not want to lag behind the owners, sometimes ordered similar decorations for themselves from cheap metals and glass "pearls". The fashion of the beginning of the 14th century demanded complex and bulky forms, woven from many chains, so wide that they began at the base of the neck and covered the shoulders and chest. Simple links intertwined interspersed with plant and flower motifs. In order to prevent the necklace from slanting in any way and taking an ugly position, it was fastened on the chest with a clasp. At the request of the owner or owner, pendants or bells were additionally strengthened to the necklace. However, at the beginning of the 15th century that followed, women became accustomed to short necklaces and chains that no longer concealed the neckline, and vice versa, set off the whiteness of women's skin with their metallic sheen. Men soon picked up on the new trend, however, until 1420, long necklaces were still found on a par with short ones, and finally, in the second twenty years of the century, short necklaces finally won. However, the "well-forgotten old" managed to return in 1460-1480. when the strands of beads and the interweaving of chains lengthened again, covering the shoulders and chest, as before, in order to then disappear before the end of the Medieval era.

There were so many whimsical forms and varieties of this decoration, beloved by the aristocracy, that it is not possible to classify them. Most likely, much depended on the individual taste or whim of a particular customer. So the simplest known form of "neck ornament" was a string of pearl beads. An expensive necklace could consist of two or more strands with pearls strung on them, sometimes the pearls were interspersed with other precious stones matched to match; a string of pearls could end in a pendant or pendant. For those who could not afford pearls, which were quite expensive, there were artificial varieties, however, made rather crudely. They were glass beads filled with mother-of-pearl from the inside. On the other hand, unlike genuine pearls, artificial ones could be given any shape, which women of modest means willingly used.

Gold and silver chains were also in fashion, as a rule, two-row, metal links could be interspersed with enameled ones. A cross or pendant richly decorated with enamel and precious stones often relied on such a chain, in addition, at the request of the owner, chased or enameled leaves and unchanging bells could serve as additional decorations. Also, heavy gold chains were an invariable attribute of order vestments - so the knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece have preserved the custom on solemn occasions to wear a gold forged chain with a pendant in the form of a tiny ram's skin made of cast gold.

And finally, the same cross, pendant or pendant could be worn on a silk or satin ribbon, and finally, a leather or woven scarf, no less richly decorated with precious stones and chased metal leaves, served as an original variety of “necklace”.

necklaces
Long necklaces descending to the chest are typical of the 14th century. Neroccio de Landi "Portrait of a Lady" (detail). OK. 1485. National Gallery, Washington	Twisted necklaces were especially difficult to manufacture. Woven necklace of the 15th century. Hans Memling "Portrait of Maria Portinari" (detail) - "Tommaso and Maria Portinari" (diptych, right wing). OK. 1470. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York	Short necklaces, tight around the neck, were very fashionable in the first quarter of the 15th century. Rogier van der Weyden "Portrait of Isabella of Portugal" (detail). 1445-50. Getty Museum, Los Angeles	Pendants, as a rule, were worn on forged or twisted chains. Hans Memling "Portrait of a young woman" (detail). 1480. Memling Museum, Bruges	Men preferred neck chains, on which, if desired, a pendant or a badge of the order could be placed. Rogier van der Weyden "Portrait of Philip the Good" (detail). OK. 1450. Museum of Fine Arts, Dijon

But the most unusual accessory of that time was, of course, bells(fr. Grelots, or sonnettes). It was a purely noble decoration, fanned with the glory of ideal chivalry. In one of the most famous novels of the courtly era, Tristan and Isolde, a magic bell on a gold chain worn around the neck of a magic dog calmed anxieties and gave peace to everyone who heard its ringing, and therefore Queen Isolde, guessing that the bell was taking away her love, softening the pain of separation, gently removed it from the dog's neck and threw it into the sea.

In real life, bells served as decoration for both heraldic and ordinary costumes. Fashionistas and women of fashion could not deny themselves the pleasure of attaching a bell to a glove, where it passed to a sharp wedge on the forearm or to the bottom of a waist bag. However, there were even more foppish possibilities, for example, to order oneself to make a neck chain, on the links of which bells were attached at certain intervals, or to attach them to the belt in the same way, to put on a rattling bundle in the manner of a harness - from the shoulder to the opposite side, attaching the lower the end to the belt or leaving it hanging freely, or lowering a long chain with bells from the waist to the knees, fastening its second end to the back - again, the options depended solely on the imagination of a particular dandy or dandy.

Bells were worn, for example, on his scarlet cloak by La Hire, an associate of Joan of Arc, there are also references in documents dating back to 1369 about a certain rich man who ordered a gippon for himself, to each clasp and button of which (not forgetting about a waist purse) should have been attached on a silver bell. But everyone was eclipsed by the famous wast, dandy and heartthrob - Duke Louis of Orleans, and the younger brother of King Charles VI, ordered to make for himself in honor of the festive entry of his daughter-in-law - Queen Isabella of Bavaria to Paris " purpuen of scarlet velvet ... on the upper part of which, above the waist, were found forty sheep and forty swans, embroidered with pearls, despite the fact that a bell was attached to the neck of each sheep, and each swan had the same bell in its beak". It is easy to imagine what a deafening ring all 80 bells emitted with every movement of a high-ranking fashionista. Two more purpuens, made for the same holiday, were not so magnificently decorated, however, both were accompanied by a “rattling” neck chain.

Bells
Silver bell. England, 15th century or later. Derby Museum and Art Gallery	Bells in a bunch and a glove with a bell. Pseudo-Jacquemart "Three dead and three living" (detail) - "Small Book of Hours of the Duke of Berry" (Lat. 18014), fol. 282. National Library of France, Paris	Belt bells on women's dress. Unknown artist "Portrait of Lisbeth van Duvenvoorde" (detail). OK. 1430. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam	Drop-shaped belt bells. Master of Prayers circa 1500 Lover and Friend (detail) - The Romance of the Rose (Harley 4425), fol. 67v. OK. 1490-1500. British Library, London	Neck bells. Master Beaufort's Disciple "Alexander is offered a goblet of poisoned wine" (detail) - Talbot's Book of Shrewsbury (Royal 15 E VI), fol. 22v. 1444-45. British Library, London

The medieval bell consisted of two interconnected hemispheres, sometimes polished and smooth, sometimes decorated with carvings or embossing. In the lower hemisphere, a slot was necessarily made for better sound, the upper one just as necessarily ended with a metal eyelet, necessary for attaching it to a dress. However, teardrop-shaped bells are sometimes visible on the surviving miniatures. Inside, a ball of metal or strong clay always rolled, and sometimes just a small pebble.

Vladislav Shipilov. Copying is allowed only for non-commercial purposes.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476, its western territories were occupied by the Varan tribes, who had their own, original culture. The styles of jewelry of medieval culture are interesting for a modern person by the richness of ornamental and decorative forms, the dynamism and expressiveness of the compositional solutions of products. So:

Jewelry Styles - Medieval Era

Photo: Celtic style jewelry

The most popular decorations of the Celts were brooches, bracelets, crosses and torcs - neck hryvnias, which are a massive metal hoop.

Viking Jewelry

The Vikings, or Varangians, are fearless medieval sailors, whose homeland was the northern lands: the territories of Denmark, Sweden, Norway. The art of the Vikings left a deep mark on the culture due to its originality and distribution in the process of conquering new lands.

Viking jewelry was made mainly from silver, bronze, copper and Arab coins, gold was rarely used. Brooches, massive hryvnias, chains with pendants, and bracelets were popular.

Photo: Viking jewelry

Viking ornaments, which were customary to cover all household items, and not just jewelry, had zoomorphic motifs and included images of highly stylized animals with unnaturally twisted bodies. In addition, images of plants, leaves, curlicues were used in ornamental compositions, but the “animal style” was decisive.

The number of jewelry a woman had testified to the wealth of the family: if the husband's income was 10,000 dirhams, then the wife had one precious chain around her neck, if 20,000 dirhams, then two jewelry, etc.

Viking jewelry is at the height of fashion in 2011. Alber Elbaz, creative director of Lanvin, has designed a collection of jewelry inspired by the uniqueness and originality of Viking art. The collection is based on such features of Viking jewelry as their massiveness and volume, shapes, colors that evoke associations with old copper and bronze, as well as imitation of leather, which was actively used in jewelry, but has not survived to this day.

Gothic style jewelry

The Gothic style in the history of culture is characterized by the flourishing of crafts, including jewelry. Gothic style jewelry - necklaces made of large relief shapes made of a round gold rod, chains with pendants, agraphs, rings, belt buckles.

Agrafs are decorations that connect the edges of the cutout, replacing brooches. Knights often gave them to their lovers, so the theme was appropriate: motives of pierced hearts, entwined hands, keys, flowers, engraving of love inscriptions.

Rings acquired special significance: they were worn by everyone in large numbers, since the precious stones of the inserts were amulets. The symbolism of the stones in the Gothic style was very revered: they were valued for their size, color saturation and attributed power. In the late Gothic period, agraphs and rings were decorated with religious-themed enamels.

The history of jewelry begins with the appearance of the first people who, regardless of race, religion or culture, used jewelry as a form of self-expression, thereby indicating their social status, wealth or belonging to a certain circle. Based on archaeological findings, experts concluded that the first jewelry was worn by the Cro-Magnons, the ancestors of Homo Sapiens, as early as 40,000 years ago. From time immemorial, it so happened that the greatest passion for jewelry was experienced by women, who in ancient times used “improvised materials” for this purpose, such as bones, animal teeth, pebbles, shells, plants and much more. Humanity at an early stage of its development used this kind of jewelry in its original form, that is, without applying or partially applying processing to them, but even that was primitive. Over the course of evolution, the materials and methods used to make jewelry have evolved in many ways. During its existence, mankind has achieved incredible technological progress, but the decorations made in such a way, as in primitive times, amaze the imagination of our contemporaries. And jewelry made in ancient fashion, for example, beads or bracelets made of shells stretched on a string, which women have worn since time immemorial, is a fashion accessory that dominates jewelry fashion today.

The function carried by jewelry has changed over time, jewelry has gone from being used as a form of currency to a fashion accessory and finally to a form of artistic expression.

In ancient times, jewelry was jewelry with symbolic overtones, to a greater extent they served as talismans, it was believed that they were endowed with magical and spiritual properties. After analyzing the course of historical development, the social and prestigious significance of jewelry items gradually begins to prevail over their religious and mystical function.

Egyptian jewelry

Many researchers are of the opinion that Egyptian jewelry laid the foundation for modern jewelry art. This is no coincidence, because it was in ancient Egypt that the production of jewelry became a profession, and the methods and skills made it possible to create jewelry of various styles and variable forms, which was achieved, respectively, by expanding the range of materials used. Ancient Egyptian jewelry was at a high stage of development, and the materials used were gold, amethyst, lapis lazuli, bronze, obsidian and emeralds, chasing, cold enamel, and engraving were used. Having mastered all the components of jewelry making, Egyptian jewelers created unsurpassed jewelry, the artistic forms of which are highly appreciated even today. The favorite material of the Egyptian craftsmen was gold, they adored its brilliance and valued it for its ease of processing. In Egypt, gold was considered a symbol of power and wealth, it was "worn" even after death. This is evidenced by numerous finds in the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. Most of these finds are currently in the Cairo Museum.

Greek and Roman jewelry

Early Greek and Roman jewelry is very diverse in style and form, as it was "borrowed" from other cultures and neighboring states. Cultural symbolism played an important role in Greek jewelry art, since the jewelry of this period personifies mythological, heroic and religious scenes from the life of an ethnic group. Also in the time of Alexander the Great, sculpture in miniature was common. Rome was a thriving center for early developing jewelry craftsmanship, and a well-established jewelry trade was unparalleled until the Renaissance in Europe. Jewelry was so common that even low-ranking people wore it, and in Greece and Rome it became a common tradition to wear jewelry. Gold, for example, was even used in decorating furniture and household items. It is known that the Romans used colored stones such as topaz, emerald, ruby, sapphire and pearls to make jewelry.

medieval jewelry

With the adoption of Christianity in jewelry art, cultural styles mixed with each other to some extent. Jewelry at that time was, first of all, items symbolizing the Christian faith. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Christian monasteries were responsible for the production of most of the world's jewelry. It was during this period that the monasteries supplied jewelry "goods" to the market and were engaged in the selection of jewelry masters. The growing demand for jewelry led to the emergence of fakes, but with the formation of the first guild, such a rule as quality control of jewelry came into practice. It was with the formation of the first guild of jewelry craftsmen that the history of the development of jewelry art and precious jewelry received a serious platform, contributing to its new development.

Jewelry from the Renaissance period

Until the beginning of the Renaissance, jewelry served primarily as an expression of some kind of symbolism, which was an integral part of religious and cultural beliefs. During the Renaissance, the roles of jewelry began to diverge, increasingly being used as body adornment, created solely for the purpose of enhancing a personal representation of beauty. During the Renaissance, many famous people tried their hand at jewelry, such a great artist as Leonardo da Vinci, starting his career, worked with famous jewelers of that time. It is also known that da Vinci, during his career, made jewelry for some famous people who supported his artistic and inventive endeavors. No less famous Renaissance artist Botticelli received his early art education in a jeweler's shop. All art during the Renaissance reached a new qualitatively new level. At this time, the emphasis began to be placed on the beauty of precious stones, which were used to decorate jewelry, paintings and other works of art. People began to pay attention to the color of precious stones, their brilliance and radiance, less and less holding beliefs about their mystical function. For the first time in history, they began to use a diamond, which accordingly led to the search for methods and approaches to its processing.

XVII-XX century

The increase in the welfare of the population and a chain of other social and economic factors have contributed to the fact that precious metals, such as gold and silver, are now available to the lower strata of the population. Since the beginning of the 17th century, jewelry art has set new trends, which were caused by a genuine interest in flora and fauna, as a result of which jewelry creations begin to take on floral, ornamental forms. The fashion for them was preserved until the twentieth century. Other forms of jewelry were also used, such as animals, but floral decoration became the dominant theme in the works of jewelry makers. In the 17th-18th centuries, interest in pictorial effects was growing in jewelry art, which were achieved to a greater extent through chased relief and a complex color combination of colors, the fashion for which was dictated by the popular Baroque style at that time. New, pompous, sometimes unusual jewelry, was still in demand at that time and remained relevant until the middle of the 18th century, until the world was “conquered” by elegant, thin, originally decorated rococo jewelry. It was during the Rococo period that an assortment of jewelry was formed, which, on the whole, has not changed to this day. Brooches and aigrettes in the form of bouquets, cascades are in fashion, diamonds are gaining immense popularity, in the course of improving their processing methods, a classic brilliant cut has appeared. By the way, at this time, the production of watches begins. As for the 20th century, it is marked by an incredible variety of trends in jewelry art.

• Modern trends in jewelry

Today, jewelry is considered as a form of artistic expression, that is, in our time it is customary to talk about jewelry as an art. This trend continues to grow due to the development of production, the technological equipment of jewelry enterprises, the use of highly professional tools and the availability of materials used in jewelry. Significant advances in technology mean that jewelry is built from available resources, as well as synthetic materials, ready to rival the beauty of the most expensive natural gemstones and metals. These factors have led to a focus in jewelry craftsmanship more on design, creativity and artistic expression. The fickle fashion for jewelry is producing an increase in the rate of change in jewelry collections, which are now considered a form of self-expression. Modern jewelry trends, continuing to grow and develop, make a variety and a huge contribution to the history of jewelry in general.

Celtic style jewelry

The Celts, who inhabited part of the territory of modern France and the British Isles in the Middle Ages, created a deeply original art. Celtic jewelry that has survived to this day is not numerous: for centuries, gold and silver items were mercilessly sawn in the process of division, remade in a new way or disappeared during remelting. As for jewelry made of leather, wood, iron and fabric, they simply did not survive. However, the artifacts that have survived to this day are examples of the high and mysterious art of the Middle Ages, worthy of admiration! It is in the Celtic culture - the roots of modern Western civilization.

Photo: Celtic style jewelry.

The ornament is the most characteristic element of the Celtic culture: the surfaces of many objects were covered with it. Abstraction is characteristic of Celtic ornaments, which consists in the fantastic interweaving of its elements with a rare inclusion of images of real objects. It was forbidden to arbitrarily change the elements of ornaments, as it was believed that they were bestowed by the gods and had magical powers: the weaves symbolized the spiritual and earthly Path of man. Each image was a magical sign. So, the birds were considered heavenly messengers and each of them had its own omen: a dove - a symbol of love and spirituality, a partridge - cunning, a heron - vigilance, etc. The hare was a symbol of prosperity and abundance, snakes - the owner of healing power, fish - the personification of Higher wisdom, horse - the emblem of the goddesses of fertility, etc. Celtic crosses symbolize the union of earthly and heavenly forces, the inner circle of which depicts their consolidation.

The most popular decorations of the Celts were brooches, bracelets, crosses and torcs - neck hryvnias, which are a massive metal hoop.

Photo: Celtic ornament.

The mystery and complex intricacies of the Celtic ornament fascinate, leaving no one indifferent. All over the world, Celtic-style jewelry is very popular, and often copies are made without transforming ornamental forms: they look amazingly modern and do not require any changes!

Viking Jewelry

The Vikings, or Varangians, are fearless medieval sailors, whose homeland was the northern lands: the territories of Denmark, Sweden, Norway. The art of the Vikings left a deep mark on the culture due to its originality and distribution in the process of conquering new lands.
Viking jewelry was made mainly from silver, bronze, copper and Arab coins, gold was rarely used. Brooches, massive hryvnias, chains with pendants, and bracelets were popular.

Photo: Viking style jewelry.

Viking ornaments, which were customary to cover all household items, and not just jewelry, had zoomorphic motifs and included images of highly stylized animals with unnaturally twisted bodies. In addition, images of plants, leaves, curlicues were used in ornamental compositions, but the “animal style” was decisive.
The number of jewelry a woman had testified to the wealth of the family: if the husband's income was 10,000 dirhams, then the wife had one precious chain around her neck, if 20,000 dirhams, then two jewelry, etc.

Viking jewelry is at the height of fashion in 2011. Alber Elbaz, creative director of Lanvin, has designed a collection of jewelry inspired by the uniqueness and originality of Viking art. The collection is based on such features of Viking jewelry as their massiveness and volume, shapes, colors that evoke associations with old copper and bronze, as well as imitation of leather, which was actively used in jewelry, but has not survived to this day.

Gothic style jewelry

The Gothic style in the history of culture is characterized by the flourishing of crafts, including jewelry. Gothic style jewelry - necklaces made of large relief shapes made of a round gold rod, chains with pendants, agraphs, rings, belt buckles.

Agraphs - decorations connecting the edges of the cutout, replacing brooches. Knights often gave them to their lovers, so the theme was appropriate: motives of pierced hearts, entwined hands, keys, flowers, engraving of love inscriptions.

Rings acquired special significance: they were worn by everyone in large numbers, since the precious stones of the inserts were amulets. The symbolism of the stones in the Gothic style was very revered: they were valued for their size, color saturation and attributed power. In the late Gothic period, agraphs and rings were decorated with religious-themed enamels.

Photo: Gothic decorations.

Gothic-style pendants were round and flat, decorated with large precious stones, pearls and enamels.

Modern decoration in the Gothic style is solved using the features of the characteristic ornament. Often, these can be bright, multi-colored products, inspired by the stained glass art of the Gothic. Just do not confuse gothic-style jewelry with what representatives of the Goths subculture love - nothing in common except for the name!
Jewelry styles that use medieval artistic traditions will always be popular: the craving for mystery and unusualness is indestructible in a person.

Photo: Gothic ornament.

Renaissance a

The Renaissance is the era of the search and revival of beautiful ancient traditions. Expeditions, travels and the beginning of world trade led to discoveries in the field of technology, the emergence of new materials and, of course, the influence of the styles of different countries. If in the Middle Ages interest in gold prevailed, during the Renaissance the main role was occupied by setting stones. Emeralds from Colombia, topazes from Brazil, ionites from Sri Lanka, rubies from India, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, turquoise from Persia, peridot from the Red Sea, opals from Bohemia, amethysts from Hungary were found in the cache of a European jeweler of that time. In 1660, Jean-Baptiste Travernier brought the cursed "Hope Diamond" to France.

Antiquity becomes the leitmotif of all Renaissance jewelry: Greek and Roman gods, mythical characters, historical figures, philosophical themes. Jewelers' products of this time are a hymn to nature and man as her greatest creation; each of them is individual and unique. Significant is the increased popularity of the themes of animals, birds, plants, which were used mainly in the decoration of pendants, medallions and brooches.

With the beginning of the period of great geographical discoveries, marine themes became popular, especially in Northern Europe: dolphins, mermaids and other sea creatures, ship pendants. At that time, they wore a variety of massive chains and elegant chains, pendants, medallions, many rings and rings. From the second half of the 16th century, men and women wore brooches and buckles on their hats, images of saints and monograms woven from the letters of the name. Ladies wore earrings in the form of flowersetov and pearls, men could wear one earring. Pendants were usually worn on chains, which in themselves were a work of jewelry: each link was a small composition of plant motifs or figurines, richly decorated with enamel and ornaments. In the 16th century, diamonds increasingly dominated pendants. When combining diamonds with colored stones, colored foil was often placed under them.

In Germany during this period, in addition to precious stones, coconut shells and other exotic nuts, ostrich eggs, and nautilus shells are used in jewelry. Pearls and corals with mother-of-pearl enjoyed great love in Germany.

In the 16th century, the art of enamel portrait miniature flourished. In the best works made in the technique of painted enamel, the fine compositional sense of the master strikes: the pictorial original is used in an organic connection with the form of the object and its purpose. The bulk of the items created using the technique of painted enamel, in their style, belongs to the Renaissance.

The most popular decoration of the 16th century ithe pendant came in. He replaced the previously favored brooches and brooches. Pendants were worn on necklaces, long chains, pinned to the dress. Often the pendants were double-sided, embellished with precious stones on one side and an enamel pattern on the other. Steels and pendants were also popular, which at the same time had practical applications, for example, they served as a toothpick or earpick. The most intriguing surviving pendant of this type is a pistol pendant with retractable tooth and ear cleaners and a scraper.

Religious themes still remained in fashion: pendants in the form of a monogram of the name Jesus, miniatures depicting biblical scenes. Some decorations were meant to remind of the inevitability of death. They were called “memento mori”, “remember death”.

Pendants bearing the initials of the bearer or his lover were also popular.
Along with biblical themes, mythological subjects appeared in jewelry: nymphs, satyrs, mermaids, dragons.

Rings were worn on each finger, and sometimes several on one. Hidden places were arranged in many rings, in which fragrant herbs were usually hidden: in those days, hygiene was bad, and if the bad smell really bothered you, you could put your hand with the ring to your nose and inhale the aroma of herbs. Another popular decoration of that time, the pomander, had the same practical purpose. It was a small vessel in which ambergris and perfume oils were hidden. It was usually worn on a belt, which could also have mirrors and prayer books.

Another popular type of rings of the time were friendship and love rings. On the inside of such rings there was always some kind of romantic inscription, such as "my heart belongs to you" or "together forever." There were also the so-called Venetian rings: poison was hidden in them in order to take revenge on an unfaithful lover or get rid of an objectionable person on occasion.

In those days, gemstones were believed to have healing powers. For example, sapphire was considered a cure for skin diseases, and topaz supposedly cured dementia. Therefore, talisman jewelry was popular, usually it was rings. Usually they were intended to prevent any disease, to ward off the evil eye.

Well-known brands periodically returned to the jewelry traditions of the Renaissance in their creations (the collections include accurately recreated pendants, necklaces, brooches, earrings and bracelets made of gold and silver-tone metals with pearls and semi-precious stones), whose products are today considered collectibles. Among them: Florenza, ModeArt, Hollycraft, West Germany, 1928. The latter, for example, thanks to an exclusive agreement with the Vatican Librariesoh, got the right to reproduce objects and jewelry from the collection of religious exhibits of the Vatican! Drawing on these resources, the 1928 Jewelry Company created the Vatican Library Collection, a line focused on religious themed jewelry. This inspirational collection features bejeweled angels, crosses, crucifixes, prayer hands, rosaries, bookmarks and more.

In general, many collections of vintage jewelry from these companies were created to pay homage to the refined style and design of the Renaissance.

Style Mannerism

Mannerism (from the Italian maniera, manner) is a Western European literary and artistic style of the 16th - first third of the 17th century. It is characterized by the loss of Renaissance harmony between the physical and spiritual, nature and man. Some researchers (especially literary critics) are not inclined to consider Mannerism as an independent style and see it as an early phase of the Baroque. There is also an extended interpretation of the concept of "mannerism", as an expression of the formative, "pretentious" beginning in art at different stages of cultural development - from antiquity to the present.

This stage reflected the crisis of artistic ideals of the Italian Renaissance. The art of Mannerism as a whole is characterized by the prevalence of form over content. Exquisite technique, virtuosity of manner, demonstration of skill does not correspond to the poverty of the idea, secondary and imitative ideas. In Mannerism, the fatigue of style, the exhaustion of its vital sources. That is why this term is often interpreted more broadly, calling mannerism the last, crisis phase in the development of any artistic style in various historical eras.

For the first time after the Renaissance, the hard-won harmony of content and form, image and expression began to disintegrate due to the excessive development and aestheticization of individual elements, pictorial means: line and silhouette, colorful spot and texture, stroke and stroke. The beauty of a single detail became more important than the beauty of the whole. This path is inevitable for the evolution of the forms of any artistic style, but the Renaissance, the greatest in its artistic achievements, also created an outstanding Mannerism.

A striking example of mannerism is the work of the famous Augsburg and Nuremberg goldsmiths and jewelers, primarily the “German Cellini” W. Jamnitzer. Since the end of the 16th century, in the field of decorative art, the criterion of special value and beauty has become “rare and intricate”. Customers were less and less satisfied with the repetition of Renaissance designs, they demanded novelty, fantasy, technical sophistication, luxury and wealth. This forced the masters to look for new materials, to combine gold and silver with precious stones, pearls, corals, mother-of-pearl, overseas black and mahogany. Various kinds of curiosities, such as branched corals or nautilus shells, began to determine the overall composition of products with their form. The architectonics, the logic of the construction of the composition was completely inferior to the arbitrariness, whims of the artist's and customer's imagination.

In its development during this period, fashion reached the point of absurdity: clothes turned into just a case, completely unrelated to the human body and its proportions. Fashion stylization, which has come down to ladies' rifrok and pinned bodice, made as independent pieces of clothing and very thoroughly, has no analogy in the history of fashion.
Mannerist fashion, which dominated for fifty years, receded at the beginning of the 17th century. The baroque era is coming.

(Byzantium, Western Europe)

The period of the early Middle Ages in Europe V - XI centuries. characterized by the dominance of subsistence farming, the general decentralization of all economic and political ties, the weakening of the centers of craft and trade - cities, which led to the degradation of technology and craft, including jewelry, and a decrease in access to Western Europe for precious materials. The assortment of jewelry products is also noticeably changing: the use of jewelry in secular costume is sharply reduced, which is largely due to the dominance of the theological ideas “about the sinfulness of the human body” characteristic of the early Middle Ages. The main type of secular decoration is the brooch for a cloak. There is a simplification of the form and decoration of jewelry. The technique of jewelry production is coarsened, the most complex techniques are lost. Later, in the Gothic era (XII - XIV centuries), the most common decorations were rings and rings, which were sometimes worn 4-5 per hand, as well as pendants to the belt (a symbol of thriftiness - the key and the gift of the sovereign - the granted penny); they also wore a variety of buckles, metal buttons and aromatics. As for the rings, they differed in purpose. In the XII century, engagement rings were already known, they were worn in pairs or separately, passing the second ring to the chosen one or chosen one. Seal rings were widely used by messengers to confirm their authority. Depending on the income of the owner, all these things were made of different materials: copper, bronze, silver or gold. They were decorated with enamels, colored glass or colored stones. Jewelry became at that time not just a means of demonstrating wealth, they appreciated the thoroughness of execution, the imagination of the masters. The plots of compositions on various medallions and buckles to a knight's belt or ladies' dress find the most direct analogies with Gothic church sculpture. The linear pattern, which dominated the ornamentation throughout the 12th century, is replaced by the middle of the 13th century with a lush Gothic pattern in the form of freely climbing plant branches, roses, rose hips and holly. The technical means of artistic expression are also developing.

Treasures of the Middle Ages. Byzantium (395 - 1467). After the collapse of the Great Empire under the blows of the barbarians, the secrets of jewelry production and stone carving are preserved in its eastern territories - in Byzantium, which for almost a millennium becomes the center of the culture of the Christian world, having a huge impact on the development of the culture of many European countries, including Ancient Rus', with which Byzantium constantly maintained close political and cultural ties.

In the works of Byzantine masters, the traditions of ancient art are organically intertwined with ornamentation, decorativeism and polychromy, characteristic of the art of the East.

If the art of Byzantium at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 7th centuries was marked by a powerful influence of the culture of the ancient world, then, starting from the 7th century, the influence of the traditions of the East becomes more and more noticeable. The luxury of the emperor's court, similar to the magnificent courts of the eastern rulers, required a new, more representative environment. Things of this time are distinguished by a special splendor. At the same time, the plot side of the works retains Christian symbolism. Decorating them, artisans use complex techniques, including inlay, gold incision, blackening, enamel, including precious cloisonné, which required special skill; it is not for nothing that it is rightfully considered the highest achievement of the artistic craft of Byzantium. Enamels by Byzantine masters, the earliest samples of which date back to the 6th century, are distinguished by a high level of workmanship, brightness of color and a shiny, well-polished surface. The art of cloisonne enamel, which flourished in the 10th-12th centuries, was in tune with the worldview of medieval society. The dominance of pure and bright colors, the brilliance of the golden partitions and the background left the impression of the incorporeality and generalization of the depicted, it seemed to repeat the features characteristic of the painting of the Middle Ages.

The capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, due to its geographical position, became, along with Baghdad and Cairo, the largest market for luxury goods. An abundance of precious materials flocked here. The art of processing precious and ornamental stones was developed here. The masters of Byzantium brilliantly mastered the art of glyptics. In the pictorial motifs of cameos and works of small plastic arts, pagan motifs banned by the church are being replaced by Christian images. Cameos themselves at that time were quite often used to decorate larger items - panagias, icons, icons, decorative vessels. As a material for making cameos, carvers of Byzantium often used quite hard stones - a variety of jasper, jade, agate, onyx, chrysoprase, amethyst, lapis lazuli and even sapphire.

Jewelry in Western and Central Europe VI - XIV centuries. Treasure objects from Germany, Scandinavia, Romanian Petroasa and Szent-Nagy-Miklos (Hungary of the 7th century) belong to the early Middle Ages. They contain large gold plaques and brooches of geometric and zooamorphic shapes with coarse filigree, cold red enamel, glass and an abundance of dark red almandine pebbles, typical for European art of that time. Jewelry associated with the Baltic region and Northern Europe is often decorated with amber; ornaments of carved and forged silver items at this time are geometric in nature.

European jewelry art achieved significant success in the 12th-14th centuries, during the dominance of the Gothic style. Already in the XII century, large centers of jewelry production were formed in such centers of craft and trade in medieval Europe as Paris and Limoges with its famous enamels, as well as in cities along the rivers Rhine and Maasa, and in Italy - Sienna, Florence and Venice.

The range of jewelry consumers is expanding. There comes a time of chivalry, solemn tournaments, poetry of minstrels and gallant worship of a lady. Knightly and urban costume acquires a certain semblance of grace, and jewelry becomes an indispensable element of the ceremonial costume not only of the secular and church aristocracy, but also of petty chivalry, townspeople - merchants and wealthy artisans.

With the development of interregional trade in the Mediterranean and the Baltic in the XII - XV centuries. Oriental gems arrive in Europe. The production of jewelry raw materials - stones, gold, silver - is also increasing in Europe itself - in Saxony, Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary. Pyropes from the Central Bohemian Mountains and Baltic amber are widely used. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the culture of working colored stone grew noticeably in Central and Western Europe. Since 1327, grinding mills with manual and water drives began to operate in Breisgau (Germany), in 1350 the same mill was built in Prague, in 1385. - in Nuremberg; on the basis of local agates, a stone-working industry arose in Idar-Oberstein.

In the context of the expansion of the jewelry market, in order to streamline the circulation of precious metals, some European cities and entire regions of Central and Western Europe for the first time introduce hallmarking of silver products, carried out under the supervision of official authorities. The administration of London was the first to stigmatize the products of goldsmiths in 1180.

The world keeps a number of outstanding works of jewelry and stone-cutting art of the XII-XIV centuries.

Remarkable monuments of art of Czech stone cutters. The decoration of the lattice of the chapel of the Holy Cross in Karlštejn with gems from the Ore Mountains, as well as the facing of the chapel of St. Wenceslas in the Cathedral of St. Vita in Prague Hradcany, where gems from Turnov were used.

A significant place in the Gothic jewelry compositions is given to lush floral ornamentation. They are often adorned with pearls, rock crystal, amethysts, topazes, garnets and tourmalines. One of the finest pieces of late or "high" Gothic jewelry in Europe is the marriage crown of the English princess Blanca, made between 1370 and 1380. The sparkling, upwardly directed lines of the golden core of the crown, reminiscent of the neuruses of the arches of Gothic cathedrals, are decorated with garlands of golden leaves, colored with rubies, sapphires and amethysts, combined with an abundance of milky white pearls.

Control questions

1. Give a brief description of the use of precious metals and jewelry stones in the works of European masters of the 6th - 11th centuries.

2. What jewelry stones are most often found on jewelry made by European masters of the Gothic era (XII - XIV centuries)?

3. Determine the characteristic features of the works of the masters of Byzantium V - XIV centuries.